eight great events of S ́akyamuni’s life. In many in-
stances, the figures depicted had no specific connec-
tion with the contents of the text and probably
functioned as symbols of protection and reverence for
the text. In other instances, particularly in later man-
uscripts, there were deities and narrative scenes based
on the contents of the sutra. The images were painted
most often in ink and gouache, but also could have gold
and silver accents. The miniaturization necessary to the
format and the preeminence of the text hampered the
development of continuous or complex narrative illus-
trations. Illuminated sutras reached an artistic apogee
in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, declined in num-
ber for several centuries, and experienced resurgence in
number and quality in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and
eighteenth centuries, especially in Nepal, Tibet, Thai-
land, and Burma.
Sutra illustrations in East Asia
East Asian Buddhists copied sutras from as early as the
fourth century in China, where the development of and
the Chinese reverence for the written word led to sutra
copying on a large scale. Sutra copying reached its peak
in the Tang period (618–907) in China, the Heian
(794–1185) and Kamakura (1185–1333) periods in
Japan, and the Koryo ̆period (918–1392) in Korea. The
sutras were copied chiefly onto hand scrolls, but the
folded book (Japanese, orihon), in which a scroll was
folded in accordion fashion, and the bound book of
separate sheets of paper were also used. Although the
initial impetus was the need for copies of the text, the
copied sutras also were revered as evidence of the spon-
sor’s piety and merit. The veneration of sutras led to
increasing adornment involving dyeing, marbling, dec-
orative designs, and illustrations, as well as the use of
gold and silver inks.The most common form of sutra illustration is the
frontispiece painting found at the beginning of hand
or folded book scrolls. These paintings were often ex-
ecuted in gold and silver inks and formed a style com-
mon to all East Asian cultures. The subject matter
frequently centered upon the Buddha preaching to a
group of BODHISATTVAS, deva, ARHATs, and practi-
tioners. A printed version of the DIAMONDSUTRAfrom
DUNHUANGdated 868 is the earliest dated versions of
such a frontispiece illustration. The scene of preaching
did not always reflect the specific content of the text.
However, some frontispiece paintings illustrated the
main doctrines or stories of the text either as single il-
lustrations or as additions to the preaching scene.A second broad category of paintings evoked, rather
than directly illustrated, the text’s message. Japanese il-
lustrations of the Heian and Kamakura periods some-
times referred to poetry or stories about the ideas and
episodes in the sutra. These illustrations appear to be
unrelated to the text, but have hidden script and rebus
that, when decoded, related to the specific sutra. The
Heike Nokyoof 1164 is a good example of this evoca-
tive style of illustration.Illustrations were also painted in the upper sections
over text that was written in the lower sections, or theSUTRAILLUSTRATIONSThis twelfth-century Japanese work illustrates the Buddha preaching in the mountains, from the epilogue to the Lotus Sutra.(Japanese,
Heian period, 794–1185.) © Reunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY. Reproduced by permission.