original Pali from Singhalese. The vamsasalso record
that two monks, Sona and Uttara, took Theravada to
mainland Southeast Asia around this time. Trade links
had certainly already been forged between the Indian
mainland, Sri Lanka, and mainland Southeast Asia by
the third century B.C.E., although archaeological evi-
dence suggests that the introduction of Buddhism into
these new regions occurred in piecemeal and diverse
fashions.
Sometimes it is hard to relate inscriptions and other
archaeological finds to a specific school and the asso-
ciation of Pali exclusively with Theravada may prove
anachronistic. Theravada seems to have flourished in
parts of Burma and Thailand from the fourth century
onward, becoming particularly strong in the lower
Burmese kingdom of Pyu and the Dvaravatpolity of
Thailand. While Theravada on the whole seems to
have coexisted in mainland Southeast Asia with other
traditions of Buddhism, as it had to a lesser extent in
Sri Lanka, it sometimes became almost a quasi-state
religion. This happened, for example, under King
Aniruddha of the Pagan kingdom of upper Burma in
the eleventh century, under King Ramkhamhaeng of
central Thailand in the thirteenth century, and under
King Tilokarat of northern Thailand in the fifteenth
century.
Buddhology
The buddhology of Theravada is dominated by the fig-
ure of Gotama (Sanskrit, Gautama) Buddha, the his-
torical Buddha, who lived in the sixth century B.C.E.
according to Theravada chronology. Also important
are the other four buddhas of the current world age,
in particular the future buddha Metteyya (Sanskrit,
MAITREYA). There is formally a tradition of twenty-
four previous buddhas recorded in the Buddhavamsa
(Chronicle of the Buddhas) text of the Sutta Pitaka,but
they rarely figure in iconography or narrative, except
in relation to the career of Gotama Buddha in his for-
mer lives. Other important cultic figures include lo-
calized Indic and Buddhicized local deities, as well as
heroic and mythic figures. Nagas, mythical serpent be-
ings that can take human form, are frequently repre-
sented as protectors of Buddhism. The process of
localization, whereby DIVINITIESand spirits local to the
host culture of Buddhism are adopted as protectors of
Buddhism, has been important in Buddhism’s adapta-
tion to new cultures. As Theravada ousted other forms
of Buddhism in mainland Southeast Asia, it has in-
corporated figures such as UPAGUPTA, GAVAMPATI, and
Pindola Bharadvaja, who are thought to have been
more important originally in other Buddhist schools,
such as the Sarvastivada. Consequently, the identity
and significance of various deities and protective and
other cultic figures varies greatly between different ar-
eas, and even between individual villages. They often
serve some of the this-worldly functions of Theravada
religion.Sacred landscape
The sacred landscape of Theravada is dominated by
monastic complexes. These complexes typically in-
corporate monastic dwellings, a building or area for
sermons, a STUPAin commemoration of the histori-
cal Buddha, a bodhi tree, a BUDDHA IMAGE, often in
an enclosed temple, along with other traditional rep-
resentations of the Buddha, such as his sacred foot-
print. In many villages the local temple is the
dominant feature. Temples are often decorated with
carvings outside and, inside, with paintings of
episodes in Gotama Buddha’s former lives (JATAKA)
or final life, images of HELLS, and legends relating the
coming of Buddhism to the region. Deities may also
be featured in a subordinate position in the temple
layout or contributory landscape. It is often believed
that a guardian deity resides within the stupa, tree, or
image, in addition to the inherent Buddha power.
Stupas are often believed to contain relics of Gotama
Buddha. Shrines, images, and stupas are also found
independent of the monastic complex. Other features
of the sacred landscape are forest and mountain her-
mitage sites for meditation monks, and, since the
1950s, meditation and retreat centers for laypeople.The three refuges in religious practice and the
role of ordination
Much Theravada practice revolves around the three
REFUGESof the Buddha, dhamma(Sanskrit, dharma),
and SAN ̇GHA. Appropriate treatment of all three is a key
focus of MERIT AND MERIT-MAKING, a principal focus
of religious practice in Theravada.
WORSHIPof the Buddha varies from daily and in-
cidental personal worship to annual festivals involv-
ing the entire community. The annual festival of
Wesak, named after the lunar month in which it takes
place (April/May), celebrates the Buddha’s birth, en-
lightenment and death. Celebrations of other events,
such as his former births, in particular the very pop-
ular Vessantara-jataka,may also form a significant
component of festivals that are not primarily Buddhist
in focus, such as annual harvest festivals or ancestor
rites. Occasional ceremonies include consecrations ofTHERAVADA