than one hundred books of poetry and prose. Stress-
ing the oneness or “interbeing” of all existence, mind-
fulness in daily life, and service and nonviolent
activism on behalf of those suffering tyranny and in-
justice, Thich Nhat Hanh is a leading preceptor of en-
gaged Buddhism.
See also:Europe; United States
Bibliography
Nhat Hanh, Thich. Being Peace.Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press,
1987.
Nhat Hanh, Thich. Love in Action: Writings on Nonviolent So-
cial Change.Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press, 1993.
CHRISTOPHERS. QUEENTIANTAI SCHOOL
Often described as the first genuinely Sinitic school of
Buddhism, the Tiantai school traces its ancestry back
to NAGARJUNA(ca. second century C.E.) in India, not
by any direct transmission but through the reading of
translated texts by its proto-patriarchs, Huiwen (Beiqi
zunzhe,mid-sixth century) and Huisi (Nanyue chan-
shi,515–577). Very little is known of these two fig-
ures. Huiwen in particular is little more than a
shadowy presence; traditional biographies report that
he was active during China’s Northern Qi dynasty
(550–577), stressed strict meditation practice, and ini-
tiated the characteristic Tiantai emphasis on triplicity.
In particular, Huiwen is reported to have emphasized
the “simultaneity of the three contemplations,”
namely, the contemplation of each object as empti-
ness, provisional positing, and the “mean,” as derived
from a strong misreading of works attributed to
Nagarjuna. Huisi, on the other hand, authored sev-
eral extant texts, and is credited with combining Hui-
wen’s “three contemplations” with the teaching of the
LOTUS SUTRA (SADDHARMAPUNDARIKA-SUTRA), to
which Huisi was especially devoted. This combination
proved to be explosive.
Huisi interpreted the lotus from the title of this
sutra as a metaphor suggesting a special relationship
between cause and effect, or practice and enlighten-
ment. The lotus, he noted, is unusual in that it gives
no flower without producing a fruit, that the fruit is
concealed and copresent in the flower, and a single
flower produces many fruits. This suggests that every
practice leads to many different results, which are co-
present in the practice, and yet unrevealed; every prac-
tice, even those that show no orientation toward
buddhahood, lead to and are copresent with buddha-
hood. The translation of the Lotus Sutraby KUMARA-
JIVA(350–409/413 C.E.) characterizes “the ultimate
reality” (literally, “real mark”) “of all dharmas” in terms
of “ten suchnesses” (literally, ten like-this’s). They are:- like-this (suchlike) appearance
- nature
- substance
- power
- activity
- cause
- condition
- effect
- response
- equality of ultimacy from beginning to end.
Huisi developed a special reading of this passage, fa-
cilitated by the peculiarity of the Chinese translation,
where each phrase referred to every element of expe-
rience simultaneously as “empty,” in addition to its lit-
eral reference to each as provisionally posited, referring
to each specific differentiated aspect (i.e., appearance,
nature, etc.). In Zhiyi’s exfoliation of this interpreta-
tive move, each was also understood as the “mean.”
This bold hermeneutic approach and its threefold im-
plication formed the basis for what would develop into
the distinctive Tiantai conception of “the ultimate re-
ality of/as all dharmas.”
The de facto founder of the school, from whose
part-time residence—Mount Tiantai in modern
Zhejiang—the school gets its name, is ZHIYI(Tiantai
Zhizhe dashi,538–597). It was Zhiyi’s numerous and
voluminous works, most of which were transcribed by
his disciple Guanding (Zhangan dashi,561–632) from
Zhiyi’s lectures, that become authoritative for all later
Tiantai tradition.Provisional and ultimate truth: The Lotus Sutra
and the classification of teachings
Zhiyi constructed a vast syncretic system of MAHAYANA
thought and practice that aimed at giving a compre-
hensive overview of all of Buddhism and that found a
place for all known modes of practice and doctrine.TIANTAISCHOOL