in Burma (Myanmar). After encountering initial resis-
tance, the practice of vipassana was endorsed by the
Burmese SAN ̇GHAand embraced by the royal court. By
the late nineteenth century, a distinct praxis and orga-
nizational pattern had emerged that set the stage for
the modern vipassanamovement of the twentieth cen-
tury. Led chiefly by reform minded scholar-monks, a
variety of simplified meditation techniques were de-
vised based on readings of the Satipatthana-sutta,the
Visuddhimagga(Path to Purification), and related texts.
These techniques typically follow the method of bare
insight. The teaching of vipassanaalso prompted the
development of new Buddhist institutions called
wipathana yeikthaor insight hermitages. Initially at-
tached to monasteries, these evolved into independent
lay oriented meditation centers. A related development
was the rise of personality cults devoted to the vener-
ation of prominent meditation teachers as living
arhats. In terms of impact, the popularization of vipas-
sana represents the most significant development in
Burmese Buddhism in the twentieth century. Thailand
has also witnessed a revival of vipassanapractice in the
modern period, and both Burmese and Thai medita-
tion teachers have been instrumental in propagating
vipassanain Sri Lanka, India, and the West.
See also:Abhijña (Higher Knowledges); Anatman/
Atman (No-Self/Self); Anitya (Impermanence);
Dhyana (Trance State); Duhkha (Suffering); Prajña
(Wisdom)
Bibliography
Kornfield, Jack. Living Buddhist Masters.Santa Cruz, CA: Unity,
1977.
Mahasi Sayadaw. The Progress of Insight through the Stages of
Purification: A Modern Pali Treatise on Buddhist Satipatthana
Meditation,tr. Nyanaponika Thera. Kandy, Sri Lanka: For-
est Hermitage, 1965.
Mendelson, E. Michael. Sangha and State in Burma: A Study of
Monastic Sectarianism and Leadership,ed. John P. Ferguson.
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1975.
Swearer, Donald K. “The Way to Meditation.” In Buddhism in
Practice,ed. Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1995.
PATRICKA. PRANKE
VIPAS ́YIN
The first of the so-called seven buddhas of the past,
Vipas ́yin is said to have lived in this world ninety-one
eons (kalpas) ago. His career is discussed at length in
the Mahapadana-suttanta(Dlghanikaya,no. 14) and
more briefly in the Buddhavamsa.Despite his promi-
nence in the list of seven, Vipas ́yin does not appear to
have become a major cultic figure.See also:Buddha(s)Bibliography
Horner, I. B., trans. The Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon,
Part 3: Buddhavamsaand Cariyapitaka.London: Pali Text
Society, 1975.
Walshe, Maurice, trans. Thus Have I Heard: The Long Discourses
of the Buddha.London: Wisdom Press, 1987.JANNATTIERVISNUVisnu is the Brahmanical god who preserves the uni-
verse, frequently as an avatara,or descent. The Bud-
dha is incorporated into Visnu’s mythology, most
clearly in the Gaya-mahatmya(Praises of the Greatness
of Gaya) section of the Vayu-purana(Ancient Book of
Vayu), in which Visnu assumes the form of the Bud-
dha and preaches false teachings to a group of asuras.
Visnu himself is not a particularly important textual
presence, but in Sri Lanka he is frequently worshiped
by Buddhists, often as one of the protectors of the re-
ligion and as a powerful, active force.See also:Divinities; Folk Religion, Southeast Asia;
Hinduism and BuddhismBibliography
Gonda, Jan. Aspects of Early Visnuism.Delhi: Motilal Banarsi-
dass, 1965.
The Vayu Purana,tr. G. V. Tagare. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
1987.JACOBN. KINNARDVIS ́VANTARAThe story of Prince Vis ́vantara (Pali, Vessantara) is
perhaps the most popular and well-known JATAKA
(past-life story of the Buddha). It exists in many
different versions and languages, and is a frequent sub-VIPAS ́YIN