plain the origin of the sense of self-hood with its ap-
propriative propensities, various problems with conti-
nuity of experience, or the projective activity of
consciousness. If causality requires temporal contigu-
ity, how can consciousness temporarily cease during
sleep, unconscious states, certain forms of meditation,
or between lives, and then suddenly recommence?
Where did it reside in the interim? If karmic conse-
quences occur long after the act they are requiting was
committed, and there is no substantial self, what links
the act to its eventual karmic effect, and in what does
this linkage reside? Most importantly, how can con-
sciousnesses that are derivative of contact between or-
gans and objects become projective?
Yogacara’s eight consciousnesses theory answered
these questions. Manovijñanabecame the organ of the
sixth consciousness, rather than its by-product; manas
became the seventh consciousness, responsible for ap-
propriating experience as “mine” and thus infesting
experience with a sense of self-hood (and thus also
called adanavijñana, “appropriative consciousness,”
and klistamanas, “defiled mind”). The eighth con-
sciousness, the alayavijñana (warehouse conscious-
ness), was Yogacara’s most important innovation.
Experiences produce seeds (blja) and perfumings
(vasana) that are deposited in the alayavijñana.These
seeds, embodying wholesome or unwholesome impli-
cations, regenerate new seeds each moment. These
causal seed chains remain latent until a new conscious
experience causes the seed to sprout, infusing a new
cognition. Hence the alayavijñana was also called
vipakavijñana(karmic requital consciousness). Like a
warehouse, the alayavijñanaserves as a repository for
seeds that are stored there, across a lifetime or many
lifetimes, until dispatched. So it was also called all-
seeds consciousness (sarvabljakavijñana). Vasanas
“perfume” the alayavijñana,like the smell of incense
perfumes a cloth in its proximity. The smell may seem
intrinsic to the cloth, but it is adventitious and can be
removed, returning the cloth to its original state. Var-
ious Yogacara texts debate whether seeds and perfum-
ing describe the same phenomenon with different
metaphors, or whether they are different types of men-
tal events. In either case, the alayavijñanaflows on-
ward like a constant stream, changing each moment
with each new experience, thus providing karmic con-
tinuity as the seeds reach fruition. The alayavijñana
continues to function even while the other conscious-
nesses become temporarily inoperative, unconscious.
Hence it is also called “foundational consciousness”
(mulavijñana). Although it stores karmic seeds and en-
genders their projection, the alayavijñanais a karmi-
cally neutral mechanical process (anivrta, avyakrta).
Manas appropriates the activities of the other con-
sciousnesses, thinking they are “my” experience, and
it appropriates the alayavijñanaas a “self.”
Karmic continuity ceases by overturning the basis
(as ́rayaparavrtti), in which the alayavijñanaand the
other consciousnesses cease to function. The con-
sciousnesses (vijñana) become direct cognitions (jñana).
Alayavijñana becomes the “great mirror cognition”
(mahadars ́anajñana), no longer holding on to or
engendering new seeds, but reflecting everything im-
partially in the present moment, like an unobstructed
mirror. Manas loses its self-prejudicial nature and
becomes the immediate cognition of equality
(samatajñana), equalizing self and other. Manovijñana,
which discriminates cognitive objects, becomes imme-
diate cognitive mastery (pratyaveksanajñana), in which
the general and particular characteristics of things are
discerned just as they are. The five sense conscious-
nesses, now devoid of mental constructions, become
immediate cognitions that accomplish what needs to
be done (krtyanusthanajñana), thereby engaging the
world effectively. Yogacara texts differ on which over-
turning occurs at which stage of practice, but they
agree that full enlightenment entails accomplishing all
of them.Purification of the mental stream
Yogacara practice consists of analyzing cognitive
processes in order to purify the mental stream of pol-
lutants (as ́rava), removing all obstructions to unexcelled
complete enlightenment (ANUTTARASAMYAKSAMBODHI).
Bad seeds and perfumings need to be filtered out, while
good seeds need to be watered and cultivated, so they
will reach fruition. Mental disturbances (kles ́a), such as
greed, hatred, delusion, arrogance, wrong views, envy,
shamelessness, and so on, are gradually eliminated,
while karmically wholesome mental conditions, such
as nonharming, serenity, carefulness, and equanimity,
are strengthened. As the obstructions from emotional
and mental obstructions (kles ́avarana) are eliminated,
purification continues until the deepest seated cogni-
tive obstructions (jñeyavarana) are finally extinguished.
Yogacara provides a vast and detailed literature on
the various practices, meditations, and stages the Yo-
gacara adept undertakes. The details differ greatly
across texts, with the Yogacarabhumienumerating sev-
enteen stages, the Das ́abhumikasutropades ́aten stages,
and other texts, such as the Mahayanasamgrahaand
Cheng weishi lun,five stages. The five stages are:YOGACARASCHOOL