and so on. His ideas were influential in every aspect of
later East Asian Buddhism; they were commented on
and reinterpreted in every generation within the Tiantai
school, and recast and responded to by the HUAYAN
SCHOOL, which amended his classification scheme and
reinterpreted the interpervasion of all dharmas in a new
way. Zhiyi’s hermeneutical technique, in particular his
metaphorical “mind-contemplation gloss” for reading
the scriptures, was instrumental in the early develop-
ment of the CHAN SCHOOL.
Bibliography
Donner, Neal. “Chih-i’s Meditation on Evil.” In Buddhist and
Taoist Practice in Medieval Chinese Society,ed. David W.
Chappell. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1987.
Donner, Neal. “Sudden and Gradual Intimately Conjoined:
Chih-i’s T’ien-t’ai View.” In Sudden and Gradual: Ap-
proaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Buddhism,ed. Peter N.
Gregory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987.
Donner, Neal, and Stevenson, Daniel B. The Great Calming and
Contemplation: A Study and Annotated Translation of the
First Chapter of Chih-i’s Mo-ho chih-kuan.Honolulu: Uni-
versity of Hawaii Press, 1993.
Hurvitz, Leon. Chih-i (538–597): An Introduction to the Life and
Ideas of a Chinese Buddhist Monk.Brussels: Institut Belges
Des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, 1980.
Ng Yu-kwan. T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Madhyamika.Hon-
olulu: University of Hawaii, 1993.
Stevenson, Daniel. “The Four Kinds of Samadhi in Early T’ien-
t’ai Buddhism.” In Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Bud-
dhism,ed. Peter N. Gregory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press, 1986.
BROOKZIPORYNZHUHONG
Zhuhong Fohui (1532–1612) is known as one of the
“Four Eminent Monks of the Ming Dynasty,” who ac-
tively promoted the syncretistic fusion of Chan and
Pure Land practices in China. Zhuhong’s adolescence
was steeped in Confucian learning and he only took
refuge in Buddhism during his middle age.
Zhuhong’s moral reputation and diligent practice
of the “samadhi of Buddha-name recitation” (nianfo
sanmei) was said to have transformed a dilapidated
monastary in Mount Yunqi of Hangzhou, where he
temporarily took up residence in 1571 as an itinerant
novice, into a famous cultivation center to which peo-
ple flocked to receive his tutelage.
Zhuhong associated widely with Confucian elites
and, through his clout and eloquence, popularized
what became prevailing modes of Buddhist pietistic ac-
tivities in the late Ming. These included the institution
of release grounds and protected reservoirs for animals
and fish, observance of the Tantric ritual “relieving the
sufferings of the hungry ghosts,” and the use of a genre
of “morality book” called “ledger of merit and de-
merit” (gongguo ge) for recording personal offenses
and meritorious deeds by assigning prescribed nu-
merical values of “merits” and “demerits” to each
recorded action.
Zhuhong also started the practice of using Buddha
statues as replacements for the living preceptors, whose
presence was otherwise required by the VINAYA
(monastic disciplinary codes) to transmit the full set
of monastic precepts to novice monks. He did this to
circumvent the political restrictions on the ordination
of monks and nuns.
His writings spanned many subject matters includ-
ing Chan, Pure Land, Huayan, Yogacara, vinaya, and
even non-Buddhist classics. They are preserved in the
anthology Yunqi fahui(Collected Dharma [Works by
Venerable] Yunqi).See also:Chan School; China; Pure Land SchoolsBibliography
Greenblatt, Kristin. “Chu-hung and Lay Buddhism in the Late
Ming.” In The Unfolding of Neo-Confucianism,ed. William
de Bary and the Conference on Seventeenth-Century Chi-
nese Thought. New York and London: Columbia University
Press, 1975.
Yü, Chun-fang. Renewal of Buddhism in China: Chu-Hung and
the Late Ming Synthesis.New York: Columbia University
Press, 1981.
WILLIAMCHUZONGGAODahui Zonggao (Miaoxi; posthumous name Pujue;
1089–1163), a Chan master in the Yangqi branch of
the Linji school in Song China (960–1279), played a
pivotal role in the development of Chan gong’an
(KOAN) practice. Zonggao was born in Xuancheng in
Anhui Province in southeast China. He left home in
1101 to join the monastic order, and in 1105 he re-
ceived full ordination as a Buddhist monk. After seek-
ing instructions from various Chan teachers, heZHUHONG