7 The 100 Most Influential Inventors of All Time 7

as GlaxoSmithKline). There she was first the assistant and

then the colleague of Hitchings, with whom she worked

for the next four decades. Elion and Hitchings developed

an array of new drugs that were effective against leukemia,

autoimmune disorders, urinary-tract infections, gout,

malaria, and viral herpes. Their success was due primarily

to their innovative research methods, which marked a

radical departure from the trial-and-error approach taken

by previous pharmacologists. Elion and Hitchings point-

edly examined the difference between the biochemistry

of normal human cells and those of cancer cells, bacteria,

viruses, and other pathogens (disease-causing agents).

They then used this information to formulate drugs that

could kill or inhibit the reproduction of a particular

pathogen, leaving the human host’s normal cells undam-

aged. The two researchers’ new emphasis on understanding

basic biochemical and physiological processes enabled them

to eliminate much guesswork and wasted effort typical

previously in developing new therapeutic drugs.

Though Elion officially retired in 1983, she helped

oversee the development of azidothymidine (AZT), the

first drug used in the treatment of AIDS. In 1991 she was

awarded a National Medal of Science and was inducted

into the National Women’s Hall of Fame.

Frederick Sanger

(b. Aug. 13, 1918, Rendcombe, Gloucestershire, Eng.)

E

nglish biochemist Frederick Sanger was twice the

recipient of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. He was

awarded the prize in 1958 for his determination of

the structure of the insulin molecule. He shared the

prize (with Paul Berg and Walter Gilbert) in 1980 for

his determination of base sequences in nucleic acids.