perienced during the last 30 years. As population becomes more dense, there is
greater competition for resources and thus more hostility. The hostility, in turn,
appears to be linked to the widely held view—which has erupted like the pox
during the last 30 years—that others have no rights and are undeserving of re-
spect or consideration. Social commentators point to a variety of behaviors,
seldom observed a generation ago, as evidence for this assessment—the plague
of drivers who cut off others in traffic, run red lights, and generally act as
though they own the roads; the increase in littering that has piled rubbish ankle
deep in so many cities; and the general surliness of service providers who have
abandoned the traditional motto, “The Customer Is Always Right,” for the
unsavory alternative, “The Customer Is Always Wrong.”
Teaching Tip
Students have difficulty with the subjunctive for two reasons. First, they aren’t
used to hearing it, so the form doesn’t rest very firmly in their linguistic reper-
toire. Second, the form does, indeed, represent an unusual pattern, for it is con-
trary to the usual agreement between subject and verb. These difficulties
require a systematic approach to instruction. One effective method is to begin
by describing the nature of the subjunctive, how it is used and why, with plenty
of examples. Then ask students to examine several paragraphs in their reading
assignments and find at least three sentences that use the subjunctive; they
should share these sentences with the class, explaining how the subjunctive is
used in each case. Finally, have them work in pairs or small groups to observe
conversations in the cafeteria, in other classes, or at the mall; the goal is to re-
cord any instances of the subjunctive in actual speech or any instances in
which the subjunctive should have been used but was not. Student teams
should share their findings with the class. What conclusions can they make on
the basis of their study of texts and their observations of conversations?Modals
Some features of mood, such as hypothetical permission, are expressed in
words that are calledmodals(M). The modals are listed here:
will all
may must
canHistorically, English modals came from a special class of verbs in Ger-
manic, the ancestor of English and the other Germanic languages. Modals have
always differed from ordinary verbs, to the point where they now belong to a
special category of their own. Modals and verbs differ in the range of forms that
PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR 125