Both the middle class and the wealthy saw the huge increase in the poor pop-
ulation as a threat. The French Revolution (1789–1799) was fresh in every-
one’s memories, and many recognized it as a struggle between the haves and
the have-nots in which the peasants of France had overwhelmed the ruling class
and turned society upside down. Understandably, concern in England and
America over the proper education of the multiplying poor escalated in the first
half of the century. Civic and corporate leaders saw the need to instill moral and
social values in the young to maintain stability and a reliable workforce. But the
baby boom children were from families who could not pay private school tui-
tion, and even if they had been able, there simply were not enough schools for
everyone. In an effort to meet the sudden need for mass schooling, communi-
ties everywhere transformed their Sunday schools to include the basics of read-
ing, writing, and arithmetic. According to Aldrich (1999), “by 1851, three-
quarters of ... working-class children aged five to 15 were enrolled in Sunday
schools” (p. 1). These schools comfortingly ensured that rowdy poor children
received lessons steeped in morality and civic virtue. They provided the added
benefit of keeping these youngsters busy all day every Sunday—the only day
that most were not at work.
This approach could not serve over the long term, however, and politicians be-
gan exploring options. Although Massachusetts had decreed in 1647 that any set-
tlement of 50 families must have a grammar school and all states had encouraged
universal education, Massachusetts did not implement compulsory education
laws until 1852. Most of the other states soon followed suit, and by the end of the
19 thcentury, America essentially had nationwide compulsory education.
Mass education led to a reconceptualization of how grammar was taught. El-
ementary schools retained the first function, linking grammar and reading to
provide students access to important moral lessons. Published in 1835,Cobb’s
Juvenile Readerwas a very popular text with a preface that included the follow-
ing statement: “Containing interesting, moral, and instructive reading lessons,
composed of words of one and two syllables: designed for the use of small chil-
dren in families and schools” (1835, n.p.). Even more popular were the
McGuffey readers, first published in 1836. These books were used throughout
the United States until World War I and were noted for their moral lessons.
In addition, the normative, prescriptive function of grammar became more
pronounced, with teachers drawing on the dictates of Lowth and inventing
some of their own, such as the injunction against the wordain’t.As Cmiel
(1991) noted, the ability to speak correctly became a matter of class distinction,
in part as a result of the Civil War and the demonization of Southern dialects.
Soon, failure to follow the prescriptions for correct speaking was deemed not
only an error in logic but also a sign of moral inferiority.
A SHORT HISTORY OF GRAMMAR 13