communication than in communication between people of the same
cultural background. Each participant may interpret the other’s speech
according to his or her own cultural conventions and expectations (see
conversational rules). If the cultural conventions of the speakers are
widely different, misinterpretations and misunderstandings can easily
arise, even resulting in a total breakdown of communication. This has been
shown by research into real-life situations, such as job interviews, doctor-
patient encounters and legal communication.
see also conversational maximcross-cultural pragmaticsn
the study of similarities and differences in cultural norms for expressing and
understanding messages, such as differences in the conventions for the
realization of speech acts.
cross-linguistic influencen
a cover-term used to refer to phenomena such as borrowing, interfer-
ence, and language transfer in which one language shows the influence
of another. It is sometimes preferred to the more widely used term “trans-
fer” and especially “interference”, because “cross-linguistic influence”
avoids associations with behaviourism.
cross-over groupsn
(in teaching) a group activity in which the class is initially divided into
groups for discussion. After a period of time, one or more member(s) of each
group move to join other groups, and the discussion continues. This allows
for ideas to be shared without the need for a whole-class feedback session.
cross-section(al) methodn
also cross-section(al) study
a study of a group of different individuals or subjects at a single point in
time, in order to measure or study a particular topic or aspect of language
(for example use of the tense system of a language). This can be contrasted
with a longitudinal methodor longitudinal study, in which an individual or
group is studied over a period of time (for example, to study how the use of
the tense system changes and develops with age).
CRTn
an abbreviation for criterion-referenced test(ing)
CTEFLA
an abbreviation forCertificate in Teaching English as a Foreign Language
to Adults(now replaced by CELTA).
cross-cultural pragmatics