For example in producing the sentence The dog chased the cat, in a serial-
order model each word the speaker produces determines the word which
comes after it:
The + dog + chased + the + cat.
In a top-to-bottom model, items which build the propositionare
produced before other items. For example:
a dog, cat, chase (unordered)
b dog + chase + cat (ordered)
c the + dog + chased + the + cat (modified)setting n
the time and place of a speech event.
For example, a conversation can take place in a classroom, a garden, a
church, and it can take place at any hour of the day. The setting of a speech
event may have an effect on what is being said and how it is said.
see also communicative competence
shadowing n
a technique sometimes used in language teaching and also in training
simultaneous interpreters in which the student repeats what a speaker says.
Several types of shadowing are sometimes used:
1 lecture shadowing – a listener silently shadows the speaker
2 reading shadowing – one student reads aloud and one shadows
3 conversational shadowing – a listener shadows a speaker, either by
completely or partially reproducing the speaker.
Shadowing is said to train listening skills and to develop fluency.
shared knowledge n
knowledge which speakers and listeners have in common and which may
influence the nature and form of communication between them. Such
knowledge may be based on common cultural knowledge, or on more
specific experiences speakers and listeners share. Shared knowledge affects
many aspects of language use including definite reference, focus and topic
constructions, cleft sentences, contrastive stress, and choice of pronouns.
shared reading n
in the teaching of reading in initial literacy programmes, activities in which
the teacher leads the learners through a reading text (often using a Big
Book) assisting the children to understand a text they might not be able to
read on their own. Shared reading is said to give learners the opportunity
to feel a part of a community of readers and to appreciate the enjoyment of
fluent reading.
shared reading