How and Why Consumers Buy 93
Although psychographics is a valid and valued methodology for many marketers,
social scientists are realizing that older tools for predicting consumer behavior are not
always applicable to the use of the Internet or on-line services and purchases of tech-
nology products. As a result, researchers are coming up with new research methods for
segmenting consumers based on technology types. Forrester Research’s
Technographics system segments consumers according to motivation, desire, and abil-
ity to invest in technology; SRI’s iVALS system segments consumers into segments based
on Internet usage.^12
Lifestyle segmentation schemes vary by culture. McCann-Erickson London, for
example, has identified these British lifestyles: Avant-Gardians (interested in change);
Pontificators (traditionalists); Chameleons (follow the crowd); and Sleepwalkers (con-
tented underachievers). The advertising agency D’Arcy, Masius, Benton & Bowles has
identified these segments of Russian consumers: “Kuptsi” (merchants), “Cossacks” (ambi-
tious and status seeking), “Students,” “Business Executives,” and “Russian Souls” (passive,
fearful of choices).^13
Personality and Self-Concept
Each person has a distinct personality that influences buying behavior. Personality
refers to the distinguishing psychological characteristics that lead to relatively consis-
tent and enduring responses to environment. Personality is usually described in terms
of such traits as self-confidence, dominance, autonomy, deference, sociability, defen-
siveness, and adaptability.^14
Personality can be useful in analyzing consumer behavior, provided that person-
ality types can be classified accurately and that strong correlations exist between cer-
tain personality types and product or brand choices. For example, a computer com-
pany might discover that many prospects show high self-confidence, dominance, and
autonomy, suggesting that computer ads should appeal to these traits.
Self-concept(or self-image) is related to personality. Marketers often try to develop
brand images that match the target market’s self-image. Yet it is possible that a per-
son’sactual self-concept(how she views herself ) differs from her ideal self-concept(how
she would like to view herself ) and from her others-self-concept(how she thinks others
see her). Which self will she try to satisfy in making a purchase? Because it is difficult
to answer this question, self-concept theory has had a mixed record of success in pre-
dicting consumer responses to brand images.^15
Psychological Factors Influencing Buyer Behavior
Psychological factors are the fourth major influence on consumer buying behavior (in
addition to cultural, social, and personal factors). In general, a person’s buying
choices are influenced by the psychological factors of motivation, perception, learn-
ing, beliefs, and attitudes.
Motivation
A person has many needs at any given time. Some needs are biogenic;they arise from
physiological states of tension such as hunger, thirst, discomfort. Other needs are
psychogenic;they arise from psychological states of tension such as the need for recog-
nition, esteem, or belonging. A need becomes a motive when it is aroused to a suffi-
cient level of intensity. A motiveis a need that is sufficiently pressing to drive the per-
son to act.
Psychologists have developed theories of human motivation. Three of the best
known—the theories of Sigmund Freud, Abraham Maslow, and Frederick Herzberg—
carry quite different implications for consumer analysis and marketing strategy.