MarketingManagement.pdf

the borders of the foreign nation. The decisions made in this link include the types

of intermediaries (agents, trading companies) that will be used, the type of trans-

portation (air, sea), and the financing and risk arrangements. The third link, chan-

nels within foreign nations, gets the products from their entry point to final buyers

and users.

Within-country distribution channels vary considerably among countries. To sell

soap in Japan, Procter & Gamble has to work through one of the most complicated

distribution systems in the world. It must sell to a general wholesaler, who sells to a

product wholesaler, who sells to a product-specialty wholesaler, who sells to a regional

wholesaler, who sells to a local wholesaler, who finally sells to retailers. All these dis-

tribution levels can mean that the consumer’s price ends up double or triple the im-

porter’s price. If P&G takes the soap to tropical Africa, the company might sell to an

import wholesaler, who sells to several jobbers, who sell to petty traders (mostly

women) working in local markets.

Another difference lies in the size and character of retail units abroad. Large-scale

retail chains dominate the U.S. scene, but much foreign retailing is in the hands of

small independent retailers. In India, millions of retailers operate tiny shops or sell

in open markets. Their markups are high, but the real price is brought down through

haggling. Incomes are low, and people must shop daily for small amounts and are

limited to whatever quantity can be carried home on foot or on a bicycle. Most homes

lack storage and refrigeration space to keep food fresh. Packaging costs are kept low

in order to keep prices low. In India, cigarettes are often bought singly. Breaking bulk

remains an important function of intermediaries and helps perpetuate the long chan-

nels of distribution, which are a major obstacle to the expansion of large-scale retail-

ing in developing countries.

ECIDING ON THE

MARKETING ORGANIZATION

Companies manage their international marketing activities in three ways: through ex-

port departments, international divisions, or a global organization.

EXPORT DEPARTMENT

A firm normally gets into international marketing by simply shipping out its goods.

If its international sales expand, the company organizes an export department con-

sisting of a sales manager and a few assistants. As sales increase further, the export

department is expanded to include various marketing services so that the company

can go after business more aggressively. If the firm moves into joint ventures or di-

rect investment, the export department will no longer be adequate to manage inter-

national operations.

INTERNATIONAL DIVISION

Many companies become involved in several international markets and ventures.

Sooner or later they will create international divisions to handle all their international

activity. The international division is headed by a division president, who sets goals

and budgets and is responsible for the company’s international growth.

The international division’s corporate staff consists of functional specialists who

provide services to various operating units. Operating units can be organized in sev-

eral ways. First, they can be geographical organizations. Reporting to the international-

division president might be regional vice presidents for North America, Latin America,

Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and the Far East. Reporting to the regional vice pres-

idents are country managers who are responsible for a sales force, sales branches, dis-

tributors, and licensees in the respective countries. Or the operating units may be

world product groups, each with an international vice president responsible for world-

wide sales of each product group. The vice presidents may draw on corporate-staff

area specialists for expertise on different geographical areas. Finally, operating units

part three

Developing

Marketing

(^386) Strategies
Final
buyers
Seller
Channels
between
nations
Seller's
international
marketing
headquarters
Channels within
foreign nations
FIGURE 6-4
Whole-Channel Concept for
International Marketing
D