was for the four-factor structure including 20 items, hence including the four items added on the basis
of the feedback of an expert panel. Moreover, strategic leadership dimensions showed to load on
different factors than the sub-dimensions of transformational leadership, hence supporting the
discriminant validity of the strategic leadership model.
Organizational creativity was partly overlapping with Intellectual stimulation. This result fits the line
of reasoning that the two behaviors play at different levels of analysis yet influence a similar outcome,
organizational innovation (Jung, 2001; Mumford & Gustafson, 1988). Organizational creativity
behaviors establish an organizational climate and culture that nurtures creative efforts and facilitates
diffusion of learning (Yukl, 2002), a work environment that encourages employees to try out different
approaches (Amabile et al., 1996; Yukl, 2002) and intellectually stimulating behaviors directly
stimulate people to challenge the status quo and encourage new and novel ways of doing things.
Mumford and Gustafson (1988) have argued that QH[WWRGLUHFWO\VWLPXODWLQJIROORZHU¶VFUHDWLYLW\
organizational innovation also depends on whether the organization has a climate that supports
LQQRYDWLRQ μμ(YHQZKHQLQGLYLGXDOVKDYHGHYHORSHGWhe capacity for innovation, their willingness to
undertake productive efforts may be conditioned by beliefs concerning the consequences of such
acWLRQV LQ D JLYHQ HQYLURQPHQW ́ (p.37) :KHQ DQ RUJDQL]DWLRQ¶V FXOWXUH Hmphasizes reliable and
efficient operations without making any mistakes or is not highly concerned with innovation,
employees will be discouraged from taking initiative in their work even if they are given autonomy
(Yukl, 2002). Organizational culture has been conceptualized as a mediator of the relationship
between transformational leadership and organizational innovation (Amabile et al., 1996; Deshpandé
et al., 1993). In a study of Taiwanese firms, for example, the positive relationship between CEO
transformational leadership and firm patent awards was partially mediated by cultural characteristics
of support for innovation and empowerment (Jung et al., 2003). Hence, the finding that items
underlying Organizational creativity and Intellectual stimulation load on one and the same factor is in
the line of expectations. Nonetheless, the two are conceptually different for operating at different
organizational levels.
The second-factor analysis of the four strategic leadership and five transformational leadership sub-
dimensions resulted in two factors which may be described as Exploration and Exploitation. For
transformational leadership, Yukl (1998) had already concluded that³$YDULHW\RIGLIIHUHQWLQIOXHQFH
SURFHVVHV PD\ EH LQYROYHG LQ WUDQVIRUPDWLRQDO OHDGHUVKLS ́(p.328). It may be argued that
transformational leadership can be defined in terms of behaviors which stimulate subordinates to be
explorative and behaviors which stimulate subordinates to be more exploitative. Those individuals