sample showed that top-level leaders demonstrated the exploration-oriented strategic leadership
behaviors to a significant larger extent than lower level managers. This linear reasoning did not hold
for the Exploitation dimensions, Client centricity and Operational efficiency. On these dimensions
middle managers scored lowest. In other words, whereas these behaviors were shown by lower-level
managers, these behaviors were manifested to a lesser degree by middle managers and manifested
mostly by top-level managers. For Client centricity, it may be argued that lower-level managers rely
on their frontline employees to implement a market oriented strategy and ensure customer satisfaction
(Hartline et al., 2000). Moreover, lower-level managers are usually responsible for daily operations
and interact closely and often with their subordinates (Den Hartog et al., 1999). Traditionally, middle
managers have been seen as part of an organization's control system. Middle management translated
strategies defined at higher levels into actions at operating levels. This involved: (1) defining tactics
and developing budgets for achieving a strategy; (2) monitoring the performance of individuals and
subunits; and (3) taking corrective action when behavior falls outside expectations. This description,
or major elements of it, has been applied for decades. In the language of strategic management, their
role has been defined as "implementation." In the reengineered organization, however, senior
managers rely less and less on middle managers. Information and communications technologies make
it easier for those at the top to monitor and control activities directly (Jackson & Humble, 1994).
These descriptive findings do not imply that lower-level and top-level managers were more effective.
The link with effectiveness is the topic of the following chapter (linking strategic and supervisory
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