correlations, two negative significant correlations, and 12 non-significant relationships. Differences
relative to instrument seem logical since different psychodynamics underlie each instrument. The
LOQ (Fleishman, 1953b, 1969) is a self-report, attitudinal questionnaire which asks the respondent to
GHVFULEHKLV³LGHDO ́OHDGHUVKLSEHKDYLRU KRZKHshould behave), not his actual behavior. On the other
hand, the LBDQ (Fleishman, 1953a; Halpin & Winer, 1957) DVNV WKH OHDGHU¶V IROORZHUV WKH
PDQDJHU¶VVXERUGLQDWHV WRGHVFULEHWKHDFWXDOEHKDYLRURIWKHOHDGHUDVWKH\SHUFHLYHLW:KHQOHDGHUV
described their attitudes about how they should behave (LOQ), the dimensions of initiating structure
and consideration were empirically independent in 67 % RIWKHFDVHV%XWZKHQWKHOHDGHU¶VDFWXDO
behavior was described by others (LBDQ), the two dimensions were related in 75 % of the cases.
Weissenberg and Kavanagh (1972) FRQFOXGHGWKDW ³$OWKRXJKDVXSHUYLVRUZRXOGlike to behave as if
C(onsideration) and S(tructure) were orthogonal, he finds this impossible to do in his day-to-day
behavior, at least in terms of his subordinates¶ SHUFHSWLRQVRIKLVEHKDYLRU ́(p. 124). The actual items
used are rarely mentioned in the articles presenting the outcomes of these studies. Yet, items can be
formulated on the basis of the description of both initiating structure and consideration oriented
leadership.
Transformational versus Transactional Leadership
The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) (Bono & Judge, 2003; Bono & Judge, 2004) is
most widely used in order to measure transformational and transactional leadership. The usual method
consists of subordinates rating the frequency with which their supervisors perform certain behaviors.
³7UDQVIRUPDWLRQDO OHDGHUVKLS LQFOXGHV ³LQGLYLGXDOL]HG FRQVLGHUDWLRQ ́ ³LQWHOOHFWXDO VWLPXODWLRQ ́
³LGHDOL]HG LQIOXHQFH ́ FKDULVPD DQG ³LQVSLUDWLRQDO PRWLYDWLRQ ́ 7Uansactional leadership includes
³FRQWLQJHQW UHZDUG EHKDYLRU ́ ³SDVVLYH PDQDJHPHQW E\ H[FHSWLRQ ́ DQG ³DFWLYH PDQDJHPHQW E\
H[FHSWLRQ ́ (Yukl, 1999a, pp. 286-287).
The initial 142 item pool for the MLQ (Bass, 1985) was developed by combining a review of the
literature with an open-ended survey asking 70 executives for their descriptions of attributes of
transformational and transactional leaders. Factor analysis indicated five scales with acceptable
reliabilities. The final 73 items were factor analyzed again in a later study (Hater & Bass, 1988) with
similar results. The MLQ has since acquired a history of research as the primary quantitative
instrument to measure the transformational leadership construct.
The transformational leadership dimensions have been identified inductively (factor analysis). There
is no underlying theory explaining the relationship between these dimensions (Yukl, 1999a).