skills and simultaneously letting go of established beliefs. Coping with these challenges requires
adaptive changes in preferred behavior. Freedman examined the psychological dynamics that prevent
individuals from learning and adjusting to the demands of a new job at a higher level. He asserted that
most people derive a sense of pride and confidence when they perform their work roles with
competence, comfort and certainty. Many people enjoy these good feelings to such an extent that they
become addicted to the associated role behaviors. This tendency inhibits their ability to venture
outside their comfort zone and adapt their behavior to new challenges. Freedman emphasizes that
organizational decision makers tend to neglect these challenges, and consequently, rather than
receiving adequate preparation and support, individuals making upward transitions are often asked to
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The discontinuity perspective of changing leadership skill requirements has received empirical
support. Mann (1965) found in a study of hospitals that different leadership styles were required at
different organizational levels in order to satisfy subordinates. Nealy and Blood (1968) showed in
their stXG\ RID9HWHUDQ¶V$GPLQLVWUDWLRQWKDWIDYRUDEOHSHUIRUPDQFH UHTXLUHGGLIIHUHQWOHDGHUVKLS
styles at different organizational levels. Kaiser and Craig (2011) investigated the moderating role of
organizational level on the relationship between managerial behavior and overall leadership
effectiveness. They found that behaviors associated with effectiveness differed across levels. They
observed that some positive predictors of effectiveness at one level became negative predictors at
another level. For example, supportive leadership was a negative predictor of leadership effectiveness
for lower-level managers, a positive predictor for middle managers, and non-significant for top-level
managers. To the contrary, empowering leadership was not a statistically significant predictor for
lower-level managers, whereas it was a negative predictor for middle managers and a positive
predictor for top-level managers. Brousseau et al. (2006) also found support for the discontinuous
changing pattern of leadership behavior. They inYHVWLJDWHGKRZPDQDJHUV¶GHFLVLRQPDNLQJVW\OHV
evolve during their managerial careers. On the basis of their analysis of the decision profiles of more
than 120,000 managers and executives, these authors observed that as individuals advance from lower
to higher organizational levels, the decision making profiles do a complete flip. The predominant style
for lower-level managers was decisive. In contrast, a flexible decision style became predominant for
higher levels of management. Brousseau et al. (2006) compared the profiles of performers in the top
20% with others and found that most successful managers reached and passed the transition point
earlier in their careers, whereas the least successful managers (the bottom 20% of performers) started
their careers pretty much like the others had, but did not make the transition successfully. Kaplan and
Kaiser (2003) reported that in their applied research with top-level managers, they found that many