Meindl et al. (1985) also followed a nontraditional follower-centered approach for examining
leadership, suggesting that the concept of leadership is likely romanticized by followers. Drawing
from attribution theory, Meindl et al. (1985) suggested that followers seek to make sense of inherently
complex and ambiguous organizational activities and outcomes by attributing them to leadership,
because it is an accessible and comprehensible explanation. This romanticized view of leadership is
particularly strong when organizational performance is extreme²either very good or very poor.
Either case is a salient event that triggers sense-making and attribution processes in followers, which
result in them portraying the leader as either the hero or the scapegoat.
4.3.1 NORMATIVE LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Burns (1978) was WKH ILUVW DXWKRU WR FRQWUDVW ³transforming ́ and transactional leadership.
³Transactional leadership involves an exchange relationship between leaders and followers such that
IROORZHUVUHFHLYHZDJHVRUSUHVWLJHIRUFRPSO\LQJZLWKDOHDGHU¶VZLVKHV ́(Rafferty & Griffin, 2004,
p.330). Similar to path-goal theory, transactional leadership was grounded in Vroom's (1964)
expectancy theory of motivation as transactional leaders clarify how followers' needs will be fulfilled
in exchange for completing their job requirements. In contrast, ³transformational leaders motivate
followers to achieve performance beyond expecWDWLRQVE\WUDQVIRUPLQJIROORZHUV¶DWWLWXGHVEHOLHIV
and values as opposed to simply gaining compliance (Bass, 1985; Yukl, 1999a, 1999b) ́(Rafferty &
Griffin, 2004, p.330). Although transactional leadership provides an important element of effective
leadership, it has been overshadowed by the simultaneous emergence of the more revolutionary
theories of transformational leadership.
Bass isolated four sub-dimensions of transformational leadership: idealized influence, inspirational
motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Idealized influence refers to
leaders who have high standards of moral and ethical conduct, who are held in high personal regard,
and who engender loyalty from followers. Inspirational motivation refers to leaders with a strong
vision for the future, based on values and ideals. The idealized influence and inspirational motivation
dimensions are highly correlated and are sometimes combined to form a measure of charisma (Bass,
1998, p.5). Intellectual stimulation refers to leaders who challenge organizational norms, encourage
divergent thinking, and who push followers to develop innovative strategies. Individual consideration
refers to leader behaviors aimed at recognizing the unique growth and developmental needs of
followers as well as coaching followers and consulting with them. %DVV¶(1985) model of
transformational leadership has been embraced by researchers and practitioners alike as the way in