The lack of progress on the strategic leadership concept may be partly due to the fact that the
dependent variable of organizational effectiveness was highly contested. Organizations operate in
multiple domains and may perform well only in a limited number of them (Cameron, 1978). To be
effective, an organization must possess attributes that are simultaneously contradictory, even mutually
exclusive (Cameron, 1986). A review of the effectiveness literature (Cameron, 1978) found that 80%
of the criteria used in evaluations of effectiveness did not overlap with those used in other studies. The
most frequently used criterion was a single, overall rating of effectiveness given by respondents
within the organization. However, if researchers use narrow measures of effectiveness, they may
develop narrow normative conclusions (Hitt, 1988). Some authors became so discouraged with the
disarray that characterized the effectiveness literature that they advocated a complete abandonment of
the term from scientific investigation (Goodman et al., 1983; Hannan & Freeman, 1977). Nonetheless,
all theories of organizations rely on some conception of the differences between high quality
(effective) performance and poor quality (ineffective) performance (Richard et al., 2009). As Cameron
(1986) stated it, effectiveness is inherently tied to all theory on organizations (p.540).
This chapter delves deeper into the notion of strategic leadership. First of all, the concept of strategy
(section 5.2) is reviewed briefly, followed by a literature review of the concept of strategic leadership
(section 5.3). On the basis thereof, a conceptual model for strategic leadership is presented (section
5.4). Lastly, this model is compared to a widely used alternative model, i.e. the Competing Values
Framework of Quinn (section 5.5) (Quinn & Rohrbaugh, 1983)^3
5.2 THE CONCEPT OF STRATEGY
³Strategy ́ is an elusive concept. The term is employed in a variety of disciplinary literatures.
Pennings (1985) noted that it is used by economists, social psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists
and political scientists. The literature abounds with definitions ranging from the general to the
specific. Chandler¶s (1962) interpretation is typical of early uses in the management literaWXUH³«WKH
determination of the long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of
action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these JRDOV ́(Chandler, 1962, p.13).
This definition is broad, encompassing both ends, in the sense of objectives and goals, and the means
for their achievement, including courses of action and allocations of resources. Subsequent theorists
have sought to narrow the concept. Thus, for example, Hofer and Schendel (1978) argue the case for
(^3) See first pilot application in Appendix II