soldiers were not aikidô masters but were on average 75 percent fitter than
when they started (Heckler 1992, 1–2, 77, 91–92, 153, 263–264). Navy
SEALs received an abbreviated version of this course in 1988, as did a com-
pany of U.S. Marines in 2000. Army Rangers, on the other hand, adopted
Gracie Jiu-jitsu in 1994. In all cases, the idea was not to create great hand-
to-hand fighters, but instead to instill the warrior ethos.
During the 1980s the United States decided to allocate significant re-
sources to developing nonlethal technologies for use in what were eu-
phemistically termed “operations other than war.” Developments included
chemical sprays, electronic stun guns, sticky foam, net guns, rope sprays,
blinding lasers, and acoustic weapons. As suggested by the list, most of the
new developments were technological rather than physical in nature. Police
forces also began training officers in the use of pepper sprays. However,
whether these changes were substantive or cosmetic remains to be seen, as
by the mid-1990s the U.S. military had announced the initiation of research
into robotic devices designed to replace human infantry altogether.
Joseph R. Svinth
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