placed by mail (made of chain rings),
which was eventually replaced by steel
plate. Late medieval plate armor itself,
although uncommon on most battle-
fields of the day, is famous for its defen-
sive strength and ingenious design. All
myths of lumbering, encumbered
knights aside, what is seldom realized is
plate’s flexibility and balance as well as
its superb craftsmanship and artistry. In
fact, the armor used by warriors in the
Middle Ages was developed to such
quality that when NASA needed joint
designs for its space suits, they actually
studied European plate armor for hints.
Medieval knights and other war-
riors were also well trained in unarmed
combat. Yet, there is also ample literary
evidence that monks of the Middle Ages
were deemed so adept at wrestling that
knights were loath to contest them in
any way other than armed. Unarmed techniques were included throughout
the German Kunst des Fechtens(art of fighting), which included an array
of bladed and staff weaponry along with unarmed skills. It taught the art
of wrestling and ground fighting known as Unterhalten(holding down).
The typical German Fechtmeister(fight-master) was well versed in close-
quarters takedowns and grappling moves that made up what they called
Ringen am Schwert(wrestling at the sword), as well as at disarming tech-
niques called Schwertnehmen(sword taking). Practical yet sophisticated
grappling techniques called collectively Gioco Stretto(usually translated as
“body work”) are described and illustrated in numerous Italian fighting
manuals and are in many ways indistinguishable from those of certain
Asian systems.
In the 1500s, Fabian von Auerswald produced a lengthy illustrated
manual of self-defense that described throws, takedowns, joint locks, and
numerous traditional holds of the German grappling and ground-fighting
methods. In 1509, the Collecteanea,the first published work on wrestling,
by the Spanish master-of-arms Pietro Monte, appeared. Monte also pro-
duced large volumes of material on the use of a wide range of weapons and
on mounted fighting. He considered wrestling, however, to be the best
foundation for all personal combat. His systematic curriculum of tech-
niques and escapes was presented as a martial art, not as a sport, and he112 Europe
An armored ninth-
century Franconian
warrior, assuming a
defensive position
with sword and
shield. This figure
is based on a
chess piece from a
set by Karl des
Grossen. (Christel
Gerstenberg/Corbis)