the fechtbuchs (Dutch; fighting manual) of the European masters, to war-
riors of the Middle Ages and Renaissance as well. These skills were not
practiced for “possible” use in the street; rather, they were taught as an ex-
pected method of combat.
Another point of “evidence” that is sometimes used to prove the Ro-
mans’ supposed unfamiliarity with unarmed combat is the use of the ces-
tus (a version of brass knuckles) by the gladiators. The argument goes that
the Romans used the cestus because they did not take the time to study how
to box correctly; the advantage went to the fighter who could land the first
punch. Boxers armed with such a weapon would, of course, have a
tremendous advantage over those who went bare-knuckled into the arena.
However, this argument fails for two reasons. First, the cestus fighters had
an even greater incentive to learn to fight correctly, since being hit with
these early brass knuckles would have incapacitated most fighters immedi-
ately. Second, since often both parties were equipped with cesti, it was crit-
ical to know the possible moves of an opponent in order to know what to
expect in the arena. Gladiator fights sometimes did consist of boxers squar-
ing off against one another armed with cesti. There also were, in all likeli-
hood, battles between cestus boxers and other weaponed gladiators. The
boxer, with his arms protected by armor, would not be at as much of a dis-
advantage when matched against other weapons as one might expect.
In addition, the Romans were well aware of the details of human
anatomy. This knowledge came, in part, from the Greeks and Egyptians,
who were among the first physicians of the ancient world and who had
centuries of experience in learning the parts of the human body, as well as
the weaknesses. It is important to note here that the average life span of a
Roman was longer than that of a Western European during the Middle
Ages. This longevity was due, in no small part, to Roman medical knowl-
edge. The Romans logically applied this knowledge to unarmed fighting.
Learning how to break joints and bones at their weak points, punch and
kick correctly, and choke off the air and blood supply to the brain was crit-
ical for gladiatorial combat.
Gladiators who entered the competitions as slaves but survived and
fought well could often earn freedom. Gladiators who entered the profession
willingly, survived, and fought well could become rich. Gladiators therefore
did not take their training lightly, nor did they compartmentalize their train-
ing into unarmed and armed, sword, spear, or trident. For these warriors, all
martial arts skills were a vital necessity for them to survive and prosper.
Because they created consummate fighters with a range of combat
skills, gladiator training schools were also used to train bodyguards and
those interested in self-protection skills. Also, gladiators who survived to
earn freedom or retirement often found their fighting skills in demand.
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