cluded archery, lance, stone sword, and knife, as well as the brand of
wrestling common across most of Central Asia. Practiced by the migrating
tribes of the steppes of northeastern Asia, these martial skills formed the
foundation for Korean martial tradition.
The second and third infusions to Hapkidô were the introduction of
Buddhist and Confucian belief systems, respectively, to Korean culture, as
well as the attendant martial and administrative traditions, from China
during the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. The introduction of Buddhist be-
liefs is reflected in the establishment of various codes that were established
to guide the warrior’s efforts in meeting his responsibilities to his commu-
nity and country. Buddhist tradition pressed an accomplished warrior to
submit to a code based on patriotism (Chung), filial piety (Hyo), fraternity
(Shin), justice (Yong), and benevolence (Im). In this way the role of Bud-
dhist thought for the Korean warrior was not unlike that played by the
Christian Church in Western Europe in the development of chivalry.
The Confucian system, for its part, advocated a reverence for govern-
mental authority and supported this through a hierarchy of levels, exami-
nations, and offices. Such a strict hierarchical system readily lent itself to
affirming the rigid Korean class system, composed of the aristocracy, bu-
reaucracy, farmers, and slaves, a system that emphasized the supremacy of
the king.
In addition to their respective religious and administrative influences,
Buddhism and Confucianism were venues for the introduction of a variety
of cultural and martial traditions from China. Among these contributions
were various weapons and martial skills, strategies, tactics, history, science,
medicine, and literature. These two belief systems (especially via Buddhist
influences on governmental policy) inculcated and supported central ele-
ments of Korean martial tradition, particularly at the local and individual
levels. The rise of the Confucian ethic, however, ultimately led to the degra-
dation of Korean martial systems through the code’s minimization of mili-
tarism and the consequent relegation of militarism to internal and defen-
sive roles. As a result, Korean military tradition may be characterized as an
informal patchwork quilt of cultural influences whipstitched together by
immediate need. These forces remained in effect up to the occupation by
the Japanese in 1910.
Initially relatively bureaucratic, the Japanese occupation forces faced
steadily growing resistance by the Korean people until the Japanese insti-
tuted harsh repressive measures in the 1930s that outlawed nearly all ex-
pression of Korean culture and demanded the adoption of Japanese cultural
counterparts. Japanese nationals were brought to Korea to dominate the
agricultural and industrial base of that country, and they brought with them
such martial art traditions as jûdô, jûjutsu, karate, aikidô, kendô(fencing),158 Hapkidô