rea and Japan. A director (kwang jang nin) attends to the managing affairs
of the school, while an instructor (sabunim) oversees regular instruction.
Nearly all Hapkidô organizations have adopted a hierarchy of ascending
student (guep) ranks numbering ten through one and usually assigned a
belt color indicative of rank. Individuals committed to continued study, fol-
lowing completion of the student ranks, are assigned a rank of one through
seven indicating various levels of competence and designated by a black
belt. Ranks eight, nine, and ten are essentially administrative positions.
Consistent with the use of a Confucian educational model, criteria for ad-
vancement, testing policies, certification, and licensing vary greatly from
organization to organization and are regularly a source of negotiation and
discussion in the Hapkidô community regarding significance and relative
merit.
Bruce Sims
See alsoAikidô; Korea; Taekwondo; T’aek’kyo ̆n
References
Kim Sang H. 2000. The Comprehensive Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts
of Ancient Korea.Hartford, CT: Turtle Press.
Kimm He-Young. 1991. Hapkidô.Baton Rouge, LA: Andrew Jackson
College Press.
Lee Joo Bang. 1979. The Ancient Martial Art of HwaRangDo. 3 vols.
Burbank, CA: Ohara Publications.
Lee Ki-Baik. 1984. A New History of Korea.Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Lee Peter H. 1993. Sources of Korean Civilization. 2 vols. New York:
Columbia University Press.
Myung Kwang-Shik. 1982. Hapkidô: Ancient Art of Masters.Seoul: World
Hapkidô Federation.
Omiya Shiro. 1992. The Hidden Roots of Aikido.Tokyo: Kodansha
International.
Suh In Hyuk. 1987. Kuk Sool. Privately published.
Yang Jwing-ming. 1992. Analysis of Shaolin Ch’in na.Jamaica Plain, MA:
YMAA Publication Center.“Hard” Chinese Martial Arts
See External vs. Internal Chinese Martial ArtsHeralds
Like most other warrior orders known to history, the knightly nobility of
Latin Christendom that flourished from the later twelfth to the early sev-
enteenth centuries developed a distinctive ideology reflective of its peculiar
nature and traditions, and largely embodied in the cycles of quasi-histori-
cal romances centered on the courts of Alexander, Caesar, Charlemagne, or
(most commonly) Arthur of Britain. Contemporaries usually referred to162 “Hard” Chinese Martial Arts