queen Nzinga Mbande, for example, trained in their combat techniques
through dance accompanied by traditional percussion instruments.
From the evidence that survives, which, unfortunately, is scarce, many
scholars now believe that this type of training was central to the develop-
ment of African martial arts systems. The enforcement of learning martial
arts through the rhythm created by percussion instruments developed an
innate sense of timing and effective movement for the practitioner. In addi-
tion, these movements developed effective footwork for the warriors. Al-
though these training patterns have been dismissed as “war dances,” ex-
pressive movement rather than martial drills, they actually played a central
role in the training of African warriors. In a nonliterate culture, this type
of direct transmission through music allowed for consistent and uniform
training without the need for written communication. This type of training
is replicated today in the most popular of the African/African American
martial arts, capoeira(see below).
Among the weapons that were used extensively by the Africans, one
of the most important was the stick. Stickfighting, which is practiced in
many cultures the world over, has especially been practiced in sub-Saharan
Africa. A variety of sticks continue to be used. For example, in addition to
a knife and a spear, contemporary Nilotic men carry two sticks: a rungu
(Swahili; a potentially deadly knobbed club) and a four-foot stick that is
used for, among other things, fighting kin without causing serious injury.
Stickfighting has existed in Africa as both a fighting sport and a mar-
tial art. In the sporting variant, competitors met for matches, and a match
concluded when a certain number of blows were registered against one of
the combatants. The number ranged from one to three, and the match
would be halted to avoid serious injury. Blows against vital points of the
body or against the head were forbidden in most cases. For the Zulu, as
well as the Mpondo, who staged intergroup as well as intravillage stick
fights, matches with neighboring polities often took on a deadly earnest
quality. The head is reported to have been the preferred target.
Thus, this type of martial arts activity fulfilled two functions for the
African practitioners. First, this practice allowed participants to directly
experience combat at a realistic level with weapons. Although the target ar-
eas were limited, the possibility of injury was very real. Participants had to
have a high level of skill just to survive such a bout without injury. For this
reason, this type of stickfighting was an excellent preparation for direct
military combat.
In addition, stickfighting provided a sporting (although “sport” does
not translate well in many non-Western contexts) outlet for the competitors
and the societies involved. The contests were a test not only of the com-
petitors’ ability, but also of the training mechanisms that were imparted to4 Africa and African America