tice was limited to the constant repetition of kata, whose numbers in-
creased with the proliferation of new schools. The focus on kata came to
be criticized as excessive reliance upon empty and beautiful forms, with lit-
tle combat practicality. It was derided as “flowery swordsmanship.”
Criticism of such practices finally resulted in the development of bam-
boo swords and body protection that allowed warriors to practice striking
one another in simulated combat, called shinai uchikomi keiko.It marked
the arrival of competitive fencing matches. Criticized by purists, this form
of early fencing, which first arose in the mid-eighteenth century, became
dominant by the end of the Tokugawa period. Training halls were devel-
oped in major urban centers as well as the domain schools of most lords.
The practice of competitive fencing spread beyond the samurai to towns-
men and farmers as well.
There was a noticeable upswing in the popularity of martial arts, es-
pecially swordsmanship, in the wake of foreign intrusions into Japanese
territory in the mid-nineteenth century. Both local domain academies and
the Tokugawa bakufu established martial arts training halls for their war-
riors. At its Kobusho (Institute for Martial Training), the bakufu appointed
Kendô 251Teachers and future teachers of the Hokubei Butokukai, Japan, ca. 1936. In the back row are Yamamoto (1-dan),
Nakamura Sensei (6-dan), and Hirano (5-dan). The front row includes Hara (2-dan), Muruyama (4-dan), Fujii Sensi
(4-dan), and Imada (2-dan). Although partially blocked, the sign appears to read “dedication meeting.” (Courtesy of
Joe Svinth)