those of Japan and Korea. These cultures adapted features of Daoist phi-
losophy to their needs. Yet the invention of a generalized philosophy based
on the principle of the dao and the generalized application of this princi-
ple, its associated worldview, and common linguistic references are
uniquely Chinese.
The main issue facing all martial artists is when to use a lethal skill. A
skilled fighter who randomly applies his skill soon becomes an enemy of all
people and is marked for destruction. This negates the goal of self-defense.
Thus, a martial artist must have some measure of what constitutes a threat
against his being, or his extended being, as embodied by his family or so-
cial unit. This measure depends on the moral judgment of what is “right”
or “wrong.”
The moral compass of Chinese culture is the dao. It identifies the or-
derly transition of life. That which impedes the orderly transition of life is
defined as “evil” (nie[20]). That which promotes this orderly transition is
“good” (shan[21]). The Chinese martial artist is culturally authorized to
apply his lethal skill against evil and to apply his life-enhancing skills in
support of that which is good.
Since ancient times, China has been a huge and inconsistently gov-
erned territory. Remote states, cities, villages, and individuals have not uni-
versally received the benefits of the rule of law. Furthermore, this rule has
frequently been imperfect. Thus, there has been an enduring need for self-
defense. As indigenous self-defense skills entrained the potent Daoist phi-
losophy, they evolved into characteristically Chinese martial art forms.
The durability of these forms is the result of transmission through a
closed system. The same parafamilial, teaching father–following son, shifu-
tu’er[22] relationship that was used to transmit medical knowledge also
was used to guarantee the continuity of the martial discipline. Yet, martial
skills required by organized groups differ from those needed for individual
combat. Thus, there were parallel means of teaching the requisite skills,
such as boxing schools and military training. But none of these matched the
durability of the parafamilial tradition.
Although Chinese martial arts training involves both life-enhancing
and life-destroying skills, it is considered to be an essentially destructive
skill. Therefore, throughout Chinese civilization, the military arm of gov-
ernment, wu[23], has been subservient to the civil arm, wen[24]. The un-
derlying rationale is that, ideally, the civil (or high medical) aspect of gov-
ernment establishes conditions that render the military aspect unnecessary.
Confucius referred to this ideal in his essay on Da Tong.However, Chinese
rulers were not naive about the realities of the human condition, and mar-
tial training was a persistent feature throughout all governments.
As in medicine, it is apparent that the application of martial skills can
Medicine, Traditional Chinese 331