Tôhei, Koichi. 1978. Ki in Daily Life.San Francisco: Japan Publications.
Ueshiba, Kisshomaru, and Ueshiba Morihei. 1986. Aikido.San Francisco:
Japan Publications.
Westbrook, Adele, and Oscar Ratti. 1994. Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere:
An Illustrated Introduction.Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle.Animal and Imitative Systems
in Chinese Martial Arts
Very early, the Chinese observed the characteristics of their natural envi-
ronment, including the wildlife and, as early as 300 B.C., there is evidence
in the writings of Zhuangzi (Chuang-tzu) that they were imitating animal
movements (birds and bears) as a form of exercise. The doctor Hua Tuo
is said to have developed the Five Animal exercises (tiger, deer, bear, ape,
and bird) around A.D. 100, and it is very easy to imagine how animal char-
acteristics were adapted to fighting techniques. Another view is that at
least some animal forms may hark back to a distant totemic past that still
occupies a place in the Chinese psyche. This totemic influence is difficult
if not impossible to trace in majority Han Chinese boxing styles; however,
it can be seen in the combination of martial arts and dance practiced by
some of China’s many national minorities. Cheng Dali, in his Chinese
Martial Arts: History and Culture,points to Frog Boxing, practiced by the
Zhuang Nationality of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, as an
example, the frog being considered their protector against both natural
and man-made disasters.
The monkey or ape, with its combination of human characteristics
and superhuman physical skills, has long been associated with martial arts.
The most notable early reference is to the ape in the story of the Maiden of
Yue (ca. 465 B.C.). In this story, an old man transforms himself into an ape
who tests the swordsmanship of the Maiden of Yue before she is selected
by the king of Yue to train his troops. Perhaps better known are the ex-
ploits of the monkey with the magic staff in the Ming novel Journey to the
West(sixteenth century). He fights his way through a host of demons to
protect the monk, Xuan Zang, during his pilgrimage to India and return to
China with Buddhist scriptures.
Monkey Boxing was among the prominent styles listed by General Qi
Jiguang in his New Book of Effective Discipline (ca. 1561), and Wang
Shixing (1547–1598) was impressed with a Monkey Boxer he observed
practicing at Shaolin Monastery (Tang 1930). General Qi also mentions the
Eagle Claw Style.
During the Qing period (1644–1911), the Praying Mantis Style ap-
peared in Shandong province, and numerous other animal routines became
associated with major styles of boxing, such as the five animals of Hong-16 Animal and Imitative Systems in Chinese Martial Arts