on one occasion their heroic exploits earned them the everlasting reputa-
tion of Shaolin Monk Soldiers.
With the Manchu conquest of China in 1644, Chinese boxing became
politicized, perhaps to a greater degree than it had ever been before.
Among his writings, the pro-Ming historian, Huang Zongxi, included
comments on an epitaph dated 1669 (1936, 5a–6b) that appear to have
been misinterpreted ever since. In the context of the times, his description
of an External School of boxing originating in Buddhist (foreign religion)
Shaolin Monastery meeting its match in an Internal School originating on
Daoist (indigenous religion) Mount Wudang can be seen as symbolizing
Chinese opposition to the Manchus. However, less critical individuals took
this piece literally as a serious discourse on Chinese boxing theory, an in-
terpretation that has encouraged a degree of divisiveness in the Chinese
martial arts community to this day.
Other anti-Manchu intellectuals and teachers such as Yan Yuan
(1635–1704) practiced boxing and other martial arts as part of what they
considered to be a well-rounded education. Heterodox religious groups
such as the Eight Trigrams and White Lotus sects used martial arts for self-
defense and included them in their religious practices. The Heaven and
Earth Society, otherwise known as the Triads or Hong League, practiced
martial arts, including Hongquan(Hong Boxing), and attempted to iden-
tify their organization with the fame of Shaolin Monastery. Professional
martial artists ran protection agencies and escort bureaus to protect com-
mercial enterprises and the homes of the wealthy, and to ensure the safe
transport of valuable items. Finally, there were various protest groups such
as the Boxers United in Righteousness, whose antiforeign movement in
Boxing, Chinese 29A martial artist in
Beijing practices
Chinese boxing, one
of the oldest elements
of Chinese culture
still practiced. (Karen
Su/Corbis)