ture of heroes and villains, these tales continue to entertain and to provide
story lines for creative retellings in theater, puppet shows, cinema, televi-
sion, and cartoons.Warrior Exploits
Whereas war tales describe the course of military campaigns or the rise and
fall of prominent families, tales of warrior exploits focus on the accom-
plishments of individuals who gained fame for founding new styles (ryûha
[19]), for duels, or for feats of daring. The practice of recounting warrior
exploits no doubt is as old as the origins of the war tales mentioned above,
but credit for the first real attempt to compile historically accurate accounts
of the lives and deeds of famous martial artists belongs to Hinatsu Shige-
taka’s [20] Honchô bugei shôden[21] (1716; reprinted in Hayakawa et al.
1915). Living in an age of peace when the thought of engaging in life-or-
death battles already seemed remote, Hinatsu hoped that his accounts of
martial valor would inspire his contemporaries, so that they might emulate
the warrior ideals of their forebears. Repeatedly reprinted and copied by
subsequent authors, Hinatsu’s work formed the basis for the general pub-
lic’s understanding of Japanese martial arts down to recent times. Play-
wrights, authors, and movie directors have mined Hinatsu for the plots of
countless swordplay adventures. The most notable of these, perhaps, is the
1953 novel Miyamoto Musashi[22] by Yoshikawa Eiji [23] (1892–1962).
This novel (which was translated into English in 1981) more than anything
else helped transform the popular image of Miyamoto Musashi (1584–
1645) from that of a brutal killer into one of an enlightened master of self-
cultivation. It formed the basis for an Academy Award–winning 1954
movie (released in America as Samurai) directed by Inagaki Hiroshi [24]
(1905–1980).Military Manuals
Japanese martial art traditions developed within the social context of lord-
vassal relationships in which the explicit purpose of martial training was
for vassals to prepare themselves to participate in military campaigns as di-
rected by their lords. Therefore, instruction in individual fighting skills
(e.g., swordsmanship) not infrequently addressed larger military concerns
such as organization, command, supply, fortifications, geomancy, strategy,
and so forth. Manuals of military science (gungaku[25] or heigaku [26]),
likewise, often included detailed information on types of armor, weapons,
and the best ways to learn how to use them.
The most widely read and influential military manual was Kôyô
gunkan[27] (Martial Mirror Used by Warriors of Kôshû [28]; reprinted in
Isogai and Hattori 1965), published in 1656 by Obata Kagenori [29]762 Written Texts: Japan