the development of a strong military (kyôhei [87]). In 1891, it ordered
compulsory training in European-style military calisthenics (heishiki taisô
[88]) at all elementary and middle schools. The ministry stated that physi-
cally these exercises would promote health and balanced muscular devel-
opment, spiritually they would promote cheerfulness and fortitude, and so-
cially they would teach obedience to commands.
Faced with this situation, many martial art enthusiasts sought to re-
form their training methods to meet the new educational standards and
policies. In particular, they developed methods of group instruction, exer-
cises for balanced physical development, principles of hygiene, rules bar-
ring illegal techniques, referees to enforce rules, tournament procedures
that would ensure the safety of weaker contestants, and an ethos of sports-
manship. Kanô Jigorô [89] (1860–1938), the founder of the Kôdôkan [90]
style of jûjutsu (jûdô), exerted enormous influence on all these efforts in his
roles as president (for twenty-seven years) of Tokyo Teacher’s School (shi-
han gakkô [91]), as the first president of the Japanese Physical Education
Association, and as Japan’s first representative to the International
Olympic Committee. Under Kanô’s leadership, Tokyo Teacher’s School be-
came the first government institution of higher education to train instruc-
tors of martial arts. Kanô was a prolific writer. His collected works (three
volumes, 1992) provide extraordinarily rich information on the develop-
ment of Japanese public education, jûdô, and international sports.
Kanô also encouraged others to write modern martial art textbooks,
several of which are still used today. Jûdô kyôhan[92] (Judo Teaching
Manual, 1908; reprinted in Watanabe 1971) by two of Kanô’s students,
Yokoyama Sakujirô [93] (1863–1912) and Ôshima Eisuke [94], was trans-
lated into English in 1915. Takano Sasaburô [95] (1863–1950), an in-
structor at Tokyo Teacher’s School, wrote a series of works, Kendô [96]
(1915; reprinted 1984), Nihon kendô kyôhan[97] (Japanese Kendô Teach-
ing Manual, 1920), and Kendô kyôhan[98] (Kendô Teaching Manual,
1930; reprinted 1993), that helped transform rough-and-tumble gekken
[99] (battling swords) into a modern sport with systematic teaching meth-
ods and clear standards for judging tournaments. These authors (as well as
pressure from nationalist politicians) prompted the Ministry of Education
to adopt jûjutsu and gekken as part of the standard school curriculum in
1912 and to change their names to jûdô and kendô, respectively, in 1926.
Finally, Kanô was instrumental in helping Funakoshi [100] Gichin [101]
(1870–1956) introduce Okinawan boxing (karate) to Japan (from whence
it spread to the rest of the world). Funakoshi’s Karatedô kyôhan[102]
(Karate Teaching Manual, 1935; English translation 1973) remains the
standard introduction to this martial art.
William M. Bodiford768 Written Texts: Japan