early 1990s. By the late 1990s capoeira had developed an international fol-
lowing. The popularity of the art has been fostered by its inclusion in Hol-
lywood films such as The Quest, Mortal Kombat II,and especially Only
the Strong, with its capoeira mestre protagonist. Capoeira has even ap-
peared recently in video game formats, played, for example, by the charac-
ter of Eddie Gordo in “Tekken III.”
Thomas A. Green
See alsoAfrica and African America; Political Conflict and the Martial Arts
References
Almeida, Bira. 1986. Capoeira: A Brazilian Art Form. Berkeley, CA: North
Atlantic Books.
Capoeira Angola. n.d. Washington, DC: International Capoeira Angola
Foundation.
Capoeira, Nestor. 1995. The Little Capoeira Book.Berkeley, CA: North
Atlantic Books.
Lewis, J. Lowell. 1992. Ring of Liberation: Deceptive Discourse in Brazilian
Capoeira.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Thompson, Robert Farris. 1988. “Tough Guys Do Dance.”Rolling Stone,
March 24, 135–140.
Chi
See Ki/Qi
China
In early times, a number of terms were used to describe Chinese martial
arts, which are now known as wushu.The term jiangwu(teach military
matters) was a comprehensive concept comprising training in general and
martial arts in particular. In the state of Zhou (475–221 B.C.), jiangwu took
place during the winter, while farming occupied the other three seasons.
The term jiji(attack, skilled striking) was used in reference to the troops of
the state of Qi (a state that occupied much of the present province of Shan-
dong between 480 and 221 B.C.). Some have claimed that this term refers
to boxing, but it more likely refers to individual hand-to-hand combat,
both bare-handed and with weapons. The Han History Bibliographiesof
ca. A.D. 90 (Gu 1987, 205) use the term bing jiqiao(military skills).
For at least the last seven centuries, the Chinese martial arts have been
primarily called wuyi,which translates directly into “martial arts” in En-
glish, and reflects skills associated with the profession of arms in Chinese.
An exception is the term gongci zhi shu(attack and stabbing skills), used to
describe the martial arts practices prohibited under Mongol rule. During the
Qing period (1644–1911), the term quanbang(boxing and staff) was also
commonly used by the Manchu regime to describe popular Han Chinese
martial arts practices (group practice outside the military, primarily among
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