general level of well-being was sharply lowered. After a lull during the fourth century, the fifth
brought the extinction of the Western Empire and the establishment of barbarians throughout its
former territory. The cultivated urban rich, upon whom late Roman civilization depended, were
largely reduced to the condition of destitute refugees; the remainder took to living on their rural
estates. Fresh shocks continued until about A.D. 1000, without any sufficient breathing space to
allow of recovery. The wars of Byzantines and Lombards destroyed most of what remained of the
civilization of Italy. The Arabs conquered most of the territory of the Eastern Empire, established
themselves in Africa and Spain, threatened France, and even, on one occasion, sacked Rome. The
Danes and Normans caused havoc in France and England, in Sicily and Southern Italy. Life,
throughout these centuries, was precarious and full of hardship. Bad as it was in reality, gloomy
superstitions made it even worse. It was thought that the great majority even of Christians would
go to hell. At every moment, men felt themselves encompassed by evil spirits, and exposed to the
machinations of sorcerers and witches. No joy of life was possible, except, in fortunate moments,
to those who retained the thoughtlessness of children. The general misery heightened the intensity
of religious feeling. The life of the good here below was a pilgrimage to the heavenly city; nothing
of value was possible in the sublunary world except the steadfast virtue that would lead, in the
end, to eternal bliss. The Greeks, in their great days, had found joy and beauty in the every-day
world. Empedocles, apostrophizing his fellow-citizens, says: "Friends, that inhabit the great town
looking down on the yellow rock of Acragas, up by the citadel, busy in goodly works, harbour of
honour for the stranger, men unskilled in meanness, all hail." In later times, until the Renaissance,
men had no such simple happiness in the visible world, but turned their hopes to the unseen.
Acragas is replaced in their love by Jerusalem the Golden. When earthly happiness at last
returned, the intensity of longing for the other world grew gradually less. Men used the same
words, but with a less profound sincerity.
In the attempt to make the genesis and significance of Catholic philosophy intelligible, I have
found it necessary to devote more space to general history than is demanded in connection with
either ancient