made public, the ecclesiastics rebelled furiously against the Pope. The Emperor, who was in
Rome, took the opportunity to seize the Pope, who yielded to threats, gave way on investitures,
and crowned Henry V. Eleven years later, however, by the Concordat of Worms in 1122, Pope
Calixtus II compelled Henry V to give way on investitures, and to surrender control over episcopal
elections in Burgundy and Italy.
So far, the net result of the struggle was that the Pope, who had been subject to Henry III, had
become the equal of the Emperor. At the same time, he had become more completely sovereign in
the Church, which he governed by means of legates. This increase of papal power had diminished
the relative importance of bishops. Papal elections were now free from lay control, and
ecclesiastics generally were more virtuous than they had been before the reform movement.
RISE OF THE LOMBARD CITIESThe next stage was connected with the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa ( 1152-1190), an able and
energetic man, who would have succeeded in any enterprise in which success was possible. He
was a man of education, who read Latin with pleasure, though he spoke it with difficulty. His
classical learning was considerable, and he was an admirer of Roman law. He thought of himself
as the heir of the Roman emperors, and hoped to acquire their power. But as a German he was
unpopular in Italy. The Lombard cities, while willing to acknowledge his formal overlordship,
objected when he interfered in their affairs--except those which feared Milan, against which city
some of them invoked his protection. The Patarine movement in Milan continued, and was
associated with a more or less democratic tendency; most, but by no means all, of the North Italian
cities sympathized with Milan, and made common cause against the Emperor.
Hadrian IV, a vigorous Englishman who had been a missionary in Norway, became Pope two
years after the accession of Barbarossa, and was, at first, on good terms with him. They were
reconciled by a common enmity. The city of Rome claimed independence from both