CHAPTER XV The Eclipse of the PapacyTHE thirteenth century had brought to completion a great synthesis, philosophical, theological,
political, and social, which had been slowly built up by the combination of many elements. The
first element was pure Greek philosophy, especially the philosophies of Pythagoras,
Parmenides, Plato, and Aristotle. Then came, as a result of Alexander's conquests, a great influx
of oriental beliefs. * These, taking advantage of Orphism and the Mysteries, transformed the
outlook of the Greek-speaking world, and ultimately of the Latin-speaking world also. The
dying and resurrected god, the sacramental eating of what purported to be the flesh of the god,
the second birth into a new life through some ceremony analogous to baptism, came to be part
of the theology of large sections of the pagan Roman world. With these was associated an ethic
of liberation from bondage to the flesh, which was, at least theoretically, ascetic. From Syria,
Egypt, Babylonia, and Persia came the institution of a priesthood separated from the lay
population, possessed of more or less magical powers, and able to exert considerable political
influence. Impressive rituals, largely connected with belief in a life after death, came from the
same sources. From Persia, in particular, came a dualism which regarded the world as the
battleground of two great hosts, one, which was good, led by Ahura Mazda, the other, which
was evil, led by Ahriman. Black magic was the kind that was worked by the help of Ahriman
and his followers in the world of spirits. Satan is a development of Ahriman.
This influx of barbarian ideas and practices was synthesized with certain Hellenic elements in
the Neoplatonic philosophy. In Orphism, Pythagoreanism, and some parts of Plato, the Greeks
had developed
* See Cumont, Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism.