of the Reformation were as unwilling to submit to the king as to the Pope. The Anabaptists in
Germany were suppressed, but their doctrine spread to Holland and England. The conflict between
Cromwell and the Long Parliament had many aspects; in its theological aspect, it was in part a
conflict between those who rejected and those who accepted the view that the State should decide
in religious matters. Gradually weariness resulting from the wars of religion led to the growth of
belief in religious toleration, which was one of the sources of the movement which developed into
eighteenth- and nineteenthcentury liberalism.
Protestant success, at first amazingly rapid, was checked mainly as a resultant of Loyola's creation
of the Jesuit order. Loyola had been a soldier, and his order was founded on military models; there
must be unquestioning obedience to the General, and every Jesuit was to consider himself
engaged in warfare against heresy. As early as the Council of Trent, the Jesuits began to be
influential. They were disciplined, able, completely devoted to the cause, and skilful
propagandists. Their theology was the opposite of that of the Protestants; they rejected those
elements of Saint Augustine's teaching which the Protestants emphasized. They believed in free
will, and opposed predestination. Salvation was not by faith alone, but by both faith and works.
The Jesuits acquired prestige by their missionary zeal, especially in the Far East. They became
popular as confessors, because (if Pascal is to be believed) they were more lenient, except towards
heresy, than other ecclesiastics. They concentrated on education, and thus acquired a firm hold on
the minds of the young. Whenever theology did not interfere, the education they gave was the best
obtainable; we shall see that they taught Descartes more mathematics than he would have learnt
elsewhere. Politically, they were a single united disciplined body, shrinking from no dangers and
no exertions; they urged Catholic princes to practise relentless persecution, and, following in the
wake of conquering Spanish armies, re-established the terror of the Inquisition, even in Italy,
which had had nearly a century of free-thought.
The results of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, in the intellectual sphere, were at first
wholly bad, but ultimately beneficial. The Thirty Year's War persuaded everybody that neither
Protestants nor Catholics could be completely victorious; it became necessary