accepted by Descartes, refuted by Kant, and reinstated by Hegel. I think it may be said quite
decisively that, as a result of analysis of the concept "existence," modern logic has proved this
argument invalid. This is not a matter of temperament or of the social system; it is a purely
technical matter. The refutation of the argument affords, of course, no ground for supposing its
conclusion, namely the existence of God, to be untrue; if it did, we cannot suppose that Thomas
Aquinas would have rejected the argument.
Or take the question of materialism. This is a word which is capable of many meanings; we have
seen that Marx radically altered its significance. The heated controversies as to its truth or
falsehood have largely depended, for their continued vitality, upon avoidance of definition. When
the term is defined, it will be found that, according to some possible definitions, materialism is
demonstrably false; according to certain others, it may be true, though there is no positive reason
to think so; while according to yet other definitions there are some reasons in its favour, though
these reasons are not conclusive. All this, again, depends upon technical considerations, and has
nothing to do with the social system.
The truth of the matter is really fairly simple. What is conventionally called "philosophy" consists
of two very different elements. On the one hand, there are questions which are scientific or
logical; these are amenable to methods as to which there is general agreement. On the other hand,
there are questions of passionate interest to large numbers of people, as to which there is no solid
evidence either way. Among the latter are practical questions, as to which it is impossible to
remain aloof. When there is a war, I must support my own country or come into painful conflict
both with friends and with the authorities. At many times there has been no middle course
between supporting and opposing the official religion. For one reason or another, we all find it
impossible to maintain an attitude of sceptical detachment on many issues as to which pure reason
is silent. A "philosophy," in a very usual sense of the word, is an organic whole of such
extrarational decisions. It is in regard to "philosophy" in this sense that Marx's contention is
largely true. But even in this sense a philosophy is determined by other social causes as well as by
those that are economic. War, especially, has its share in historical causation; and vic-