Understanding Psychological Disorders: The Neuropsychosocial Approach 67
Moreover, studies of rats have also demonstrated the infl uence of social factors.
For example, in one study, rats received inescapable shocks either alone or in pairs.
The pairs of rats fought when shocked. But these rats, when tested individually
2 days later, were less likely to show learned helplessness than the rats that were orig-
inally shocked alone (Zhukov & Vinogradova, 1998). Perhaps the fi ghting helped
to distract the paired rats from the shocks, or perhaps the neural events that pro-
voked the rats to fi ght also protected them from subsequent learned helplessness.
What does this have to do with humans? Consider the fact that social factors
can create an aversive situation from which an individual cannot escape, such as
abuse (physical, sexual, or emotional), social discrimination, or poverty (for Anna,
in Case 2.1). Characteristics of the environment, such as uncontrollable noise and
crowding, are associated with a learned helplessness response (Evans & Stecker,
2004). These events lead to changes in psychological factors, such as the individual’s
beliefs (“I can’t escape, so I might as well give up”), goals (“No matter what I do it
doesn’t help, so I must simply endure it”), and behavior (staying put). Inturn, these
events lead to neurological changes, such as a reduced serotonin level in the brain,
which is associated with depression. And we’ve already seen how learned helpless-
ness may contribute to some cases of depression.
Let’s conclude this chapter by briefly examining how neurological, psychologi-
cal, and social factors might have affected each other via feedback loops in the case of
Big Edie and Little Edie. Both women were artistic, unconventional, and independent
(psychological factor), but their social class and the time in which they lived made their
behavior “inappropriate,” leading them to be discriminated against within their extended
family and community (social factor). In turn, the social constraints of their day prevented
them from having jobs or careers, and so they were unable to support themselves; they
were fi nancially dependent on others (social), which created its own stress (neurological
and psychological). These external realities, in turn, may have heightened their feeling
that people were out to get them (psychological factor). Moreover, it is possible that they
had neurological characteristics—such as emotional reactivity—that predisposed them
to behave in certain ways, which in turn evoked certain responses from others.
We will draw on the neuropsychosocial approach—considering all three types
of factors and their feedback loops—to understand the various psychological dis-
orders discussed in this book. Neurological factors (genetics, brain structure and
function, and bodily responses), psychological factors (learning and behavior,
mental processes and mental contents, and emotions), social factors (social stres-
sors, relationships, family, culture, and socioeconomic status), and the interactions
among these factors all play a role in explaining psychological disorders.
Summary of Neurological
Factors
The nervous system has two major parts: the
central nervous system (CNS), which is com-
posed of the brain and spinal cord, and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS), which is
composed of the sensory-somatic nervous sys-
tem and the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
The ANS controls many involuntary func-
tions, such as those of the heart, blood ves-
sels, and digestive tract. The ANS has two
major components: (1) The sympathetic ner-
vous system produces more adaptive bodily
functioning in an emergency with the fight-
or-flight response. As part of this response,
the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA
axis) manages the production of cortisol,
which helps the muscles prepare for physi-
cal exertion. The HPA axis and high levels of
cortisol are involved in depression and stress-
related psychological disorders. (2) The para-
sympathetic nervous system typically brings
the body back to its normal state after a fi ght-
or-fl ight response.
The brain is divided into two hemispheres,
which each have four major lobes: occipital
lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and frontal
lobe. Subcortical (beneath the cortex) areas
of importance are as follows: (1) the limbic
system, which includes the hypothalamus,
the amygdala, and the hippocampus; (2) the
thalamus; (3) the nucleus accumbens; (4) the
basal ganglia; and (5) the cerebellum.
There are three types of neurons: sensory
neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons
(most neurons are interneurons). Neurons
communicate with each other to create pat-
terns of activation—brain circuits—which are
organized into large brain systems; these sys-
tems may be disrupted in cases of psychopa-
thology. A neuron has a cell body, an axon that
SUMMING UP
S fN l i l
functioninginanemergencywiththefight lobeSubcortical(beneaththecortex)areas