126 CHAPTER 4
The procedure of reinforcing a small component of behavior at a time, and then
progressively adding components of changed behavior until the desired complex
behavior is exhibited is called shaping. The process of adding components is called
successive approximation.Making Use of Extinction In addition to using reinforcement and punishment, thera-
pists also rely on the principle of extinction, which is the process of eliminating a
behavior by not reinforcing it. To see how extinction can work to change behavior,
let’s consider someone who has a mild version of Leon’s problem of social phobia.
This man only gets anxious in certain types of social situations, such as going to
a party where there will be unfamiliar people. Working with a therapist, the man
might realize that in the past, when his wife has suggested they go to a party, he puts
up such a fuss that she doesn’t push him to go—it’s not worth the effort to drag
him to the party and have him complain before, during, and after it. Therapist and
patient might decide that the maladaptive behavior to change is his complaining,
because it leads his wife to decline the invitation (or to leave him at home). Patient
and therapist agree to have the wife come to a therapy session and propose to her
that she extinguish her husband’s complaining. That is, when he complains about
parties, she should ignore these comments, and they both then go to the party. In
contrast, when he talks about other things, she can respond with interest.Keeping Track of the ABCs Through Self-Monitoring In order to determine the antecedents
and consequences of maladaptive behaviors, patients often use self-monitoring tools,
such as keeping a daily log of activities, feelings, and thoughts. By completing self-
monitoring logs like the one in Figure 4.2, a patient can become aware of possible
triggers, or antecedents to a problematic behavior. The date, day of the week, and time
of day can help the patient to identify triggers related to time. Information about the
context can help the patient to identify whether particular situations or environments
have become conditioned stimuli. Identifying thoughts, feelings, interactions with oth-
ers, or other stimuli that triggered the problematic behavior (right-hand column in
Figure 4.2) can help the patient and the therapist to plan the direction the therapy
should take. Daily self-monitoring logs are used in treatments for anxiety, poor mood,
smoking, compulsive gambling, overeating, and sleep problems, among others.
Behavioral techniques that rely on operant conditioning principles are often
used in inpatient psychiatric units, where clinicians can intensively monitor and
treat patients 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Under these conditions, caregivers
can change the response contingencies for desired and undesired behavior. In order
to change behavior, treatment programs for psychiatric patients, mentally retarded
children and adults, and prison inmates often employ secondary reinforcers, objects
and events that do not directly satisfy a biological need but are desirable nonetheless.
Examples of secondary reinforcers are praise or the opportunity to enjoy a favorite
activity, such as watching television or using a computer. In addition, a common
form of secondary reinforcement relies on a system in which participants can earn
a “token” or chit by engaging in desired behaviors. The tokens or chits can be
exchanged at a “store” for small items such as candy or for privileges such as
permission to go out for a walk. A treatment program that uses such secondary
reinforcers to change behavior is called a token economy.The Goals of Cognitive Therapy
Unlike behavior therapy, cognitive therapy focuses not on what can be directly
observed (stimuli, responses, and consequences of responses), but rather on internal
states and events—namely, on the way people perceive and interpret objects and events
can infl uence their mental health. In particular, many individuals with psychological
disorders have automatic but irrational thoughts or incorrect beliefs that were formed
as a result of past experiences. Such dysfunctional thoughts and beliefs, in turn, con-
tribute to maladaptive behaviors and poor mood. Cognitive therapy is designed to
modify the automatic thoughts and beliefs that contribute to psychological disorders.Shaping
The process of reinforcing a small component
of behavior at a time and then progressively
adding components until the desired complex
behavior occurs.
Extinction
The process of eliminating a behavior by not
reinforcing it.
Secondary reinforcers
Objects and events that do not directly
satisfy a biological need but are desirable
nonetheless.
Token economy
A treatment program that uses “tokens” or
chits as secondary reinforcers to change
behavior.