238 CHAPTER 6
associated with depression. Alternatively, the suicide rates across coun-
tries could depend, in part, on the socioeconomic circumstances of citi-
zens; suicide risk increases with economic adversity (Agerbo et al., 2007;
Preti, 2003).
How might cultural factors affect suicide rates? The French
sociologist Émile Durkheim (1897/1951) formulated a theory after
comparing suicide rates in different countries across several periods
of time. Durkheim proposed that suicide is more likely when a soci-
ety is too “individualistic,” and its citizens do not feel enough of a
sense of being part of a community or group; that is, they feel alien-
ated from others. Durkheim’s theory may, in part, account for the
increasing worldwide suicide rate among young men. That is, young
men may feel an increasing sense of alienation and thus become more
likely to commit suicide as their society modernizes, and as the social
rituals and traditional societal organization that binds young people
more closely to their family and community disintegrate. Conversely,
Durkheim proposed that during times of stress, a community may pull together
to grapple with the common challenge; when this happens an individual’s sense
of belonging to a cohesive group can protect against suicide. Other possible fac-
tors that may account for the increased suicide rate among youth are listed in
Table 6.14.Cultural norms and customs can infl uence suicide
rates. Among the Yuit Eskimos of St. Lawrence,
when someone requests suicide three times,
relatives are supposed to help the person kill
himself or herself (Leighton & Hughes, 1955). In
contrast, among the Tiv of Nigeria, suicide report-
edly never occurs (Evans & Farberow, 1988). Such
cultural norms about suicide can affect individuals’
beliefs and expectations about suicide.Natalie Forbes/Corbis
- Earlier and easier access to alcohol, drugs, and fi rearms
- Neurological damage to fetuses, from nutritional defi ciencies, alcohol, nicotine, or cocaine
use in pregnant mothers - Longer survival of premature babies, with increased vulnerability of their nervous system (as
a result of their low birth weight) - The decrease in the average age of puberty
- The younger age at which depression fi rst occurs
- Actual rates of depression may have increased over time
- More accurate reporting of suicides—thus the actual increase may be smaller than it appears
Source: De Leo, 2002a.
Table 6.14 • Possible Causes of the Increased Suicide Rate Among Youth
Support for Durkheim’s theory comes from the decrease in suicide rates during
good economic times or times of optimism within a culture (Weyerer & Wiedenmann,
1995). For example, in the fi nal years of the Soviet Union (from 1984 to 1988), the
suicide rate there decreased by over a third, as its citizens became hopeful about
the future (Wasserman & Varnik, 1998).
Another important social factor that infl uences suicidal behavior is religion.
Countries where the citizens are more religious tend to have lower suicide rates
than do countries where citizens are less religious. Countries with a large Muslim
population are among those with the lowest suicide rates in the world, followed
by countries with a large Roman Catholic population; the tenets of both of these
religions forbid suicide (De Leo, 2002a; Simpson & Conklin, 1989). Moreover,
individuals who are more committed to their religion and more involved with it
are less likely to commit suicide, which is consistent with Durkheim’s theory that
being an active member of a community decreases alienation, and therefore sui-
cide (Stack 1983; Stack & Wasserman, 1992).
The difference in suicide rates between the sexes provides another example
of the ways that culture can contribute to suicide. The ratio of men to women