The History of Abnormal Psychology 13
throughout Europe affected the view of psychopathology: The views that biological
or emotional forces contributed to psychopathology waned, as did scientifi c investi-
gations into its causes.
Forces of Evil in the Middle Ages
and the Renaissance
With the rise of Christianity in Europe, psychopathology came to be attributed to
forces of evil; this view persisted from the Middle Ages until the early Renaissance.
The Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages (approximately 500–1400 C.E.), the Greek emphasis on rea-
son and science lost infl uence, and madness was once again thought to result from su-
pernatural forces, now being conceived as a consequence of a battle between good and
evil for the possession of an individual’s soul. Prophets and visionaries were believed to
be possessed or inspired by the will of God. For example, French heroine Joan of Arc
reported that she heard the voice of God command her to lead a French army to drive
the British out of France. The French hailed her as a visionary. In contrast, other men
and women who reported such experiences usually were believed to be possessed by the
devil or were viewed as being punished for their sins. Treatment consisted of attempts
to end the possession: exorcism, torture (with the idea that physical pain would drive
out the evil forces), starvation, and other forms of punishment to the body. Such inhu-
mane treatment was not undertaken everywhere, though. As early as the 10th century,
Islamic institutions were caring humanely for those with mental illness (Sarró, 1956).
The Renaissance
During the Renaissance (15th through 17th centuries), mental illness continued to
be viewed as a result of demonic possession, and witches (who were possessed by,
or in league with, the devil) were held responsible for a wide variety of ills. Indeed,
witches were blamed for other people’s physical problems and even for societal
problems, such as droughts or crop failures. As before, treatment was primarily
focused on ridding the individual of demonic forces, in one way or another.
During the Renaissance, people believed that witches put the whole commu-nity in jeopardy through their evil acts and through their association with the devil
(White, 1948). The era is notable for its witch hunts, which were organized ef-
forts to track down individuals who were believed to be in league with the devil
and to have infl icted possession on other people (Kemp, 2000). Once found, these
“witches” were often burned alive. The practice of witch burning spread through-
out Europe and the American colonies:
Judges were called upon to pass sentence on witches in great numbers. A French judge
boasted that he had burned 800 women in 16 years on the bench; 600 were burned
during the administration of a bishop in Bamberg. The Inquisition, originally started
by the Church of Rome, was carried along by Protestant Churches in Great Britain
and Germany. In Protestant Geneva 500 persons were burned in the year 1515. Other
countries, where there were Catholic jurists, boasted of as many burnings. In Treves,
7,000 were reported burned during a period of several years.
(Bromberg, 1937, p. 61, quoted in White, 1948, p. 8)Rationality and Reason in the
18th and 19th Centuries
At the end of the Renaissance, rational thought and reason gained acceptance again.
French philosopher René Descartes proposed that mind and body are distinct, and
that bodily illness arises from abnormalities in the body, whereas mental illness arises
from abnormalities in the mind. Similarly, according to the 17th-century British
philosopher John Locke, insanity is caused by irrational thinking, and so could be
treated by helping people regain their rational and logical thought process.
Joan of Arc (1412–1430) was a young Frenchwoman
who led a French army and successfully drove the
English out of France. She said that God spoke to
her and told her to help her people. The French
viewed her as a visionary, but the English
believed her to be possessed by the devil.Bettmann/Corbis