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controlling. Each particular personality disorder within a cluster is associated with a
combination of the temperament and character dimensions. For example, borderline
personality disorder—characterized by emotional dysregulation and impulsivity—
involves high levels of novelty seeking and reward dependence as well as low scores
on the three character dimensions (Cloninger, 2005).
A second way to classify how temperaments relate to personality disorders is to
group them according to the most basic characteristics that underlie the disorders.
Mathematical techniques allow researchers to discover dimensions that cut across
a set of measurements, which can reveal such underlying characteristics. Research
that uses these techniques consistently yields four basic dimensions that are related
to personality disorders (Mulder & Joyce, 1997; Trull & Durrett, 2005):- emotional dysregulation, rapidly changing moods and irritability;
- ,dissocial behavior (or psychopathy) a lack of moral conscience and an ability to
manipulate others; - inhibitedness (or social withdrawal), a desire to avoid social interactions; and
- compulsivity, an overly developed sense of conscientiousness.
These four dimensions are heritable (Livesley, Jang, & Vernon, 1998).The Consequences of Behavior
Although an infant may be born with a bias to develop certain temperamental char-
acteristics, these characteristics—and personality traits—evolve through experience
in interacting with the world. Personality traits involve sets of learned behaviors
and emotional reactions to specifi c stimuli; what is learned is in part shaped by
the consequences of behavior, including how other people respond to the behavior.
The mechanisms of operant conditioning are at work whenever an individual expe-
riences consequences of behaving in a certain way: If the consequences are positive,
the behavior is reinforced (and hence likely to recur); if the consequences are nega-
tive, the behavior is punished (and hence likely to be dampened down).
The consequences of behaving in a specifi c way not only affect how tempera-
ment develops but also infl uence a person’s expectations, views of others, and views
of self (Bandura, 1986; Farmer & Nelson-Gray, 2005). Based on what they have
learned, people can develop maladaptive and faulty beliefs, which in turn lead them
to misinterpret other people’s words and actions. These (mis)interpretations rein-
force their views of themselves and the world in a pervasive self-fulfi lling cycle, bias-
ing what they pay attention to and remember, which in turn reinforces their views
of self and others (Beck, Freeman, & Davis, 2004; Linehan, 1993; Pretzer & Beck,
2005; Young, 1990). For instance, at one point Rachel Reiland states her belief
that her husband “doesn’t deserve me—no one should have to put up with me!”
(Reiland, 2004, p. 11). This belief leads her to be hypervigilant for any annoyance
expressed or implied by her husband. She’s likely to misinterpret his actions and
comments as confi rming her belief that she is undeserving, and she then alternates
lashing out in anger with groveling in grief.
According to Aaron Beck and colleagues (2001, 2004), such pervasive and self-
fulfi lling dysfunctional beliefs are at the core of personality disorders. Such beliefs have
three elements, and each personality disorder has its unique set of these elements:- automatic thoughts (e.g., “No one should have to put up with me because I’m
so bad”); - interpersonal strategies (e.g., “If I grovel or cry, maybe he’ll forgive me”); and
- cognitive distortions (e.g., “He says he has to make a living—what he really
means is that he thinks I’m not doing enough”) (Pretzer & Beck, 2005).
Social Factors in Personality Disorders: Insecurely Attached
Another factor that infl uences whether a person will develop a personality disor-
der is attachment style—the child’s emotional bond and way of interacting with
(and thinking about) his or her primary caretaker (Bowlby, 1969; see Chapter 1).P SN