The History of Abnormal Psychology 25
by noting his or her behavior when the mother briefl y left the room. Researchers
have delineated four types of attachment styles:
1.Secure attachment. These children became upset when their mother left, but quickly
calmed down upon her return (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970).2.Resistant/anxious attachment. These children became angry when their mother
left and remained angry upon her return, sometimes even hitting her (Ainsworth &
Bell, 1970).3.Avoidant attachment. These children had no change in their emotions based on
mother’s presence or absence (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970).4.Disorganized attachment. These children exhibited a combination of resistant
and avoidant styles, and also appeared confused or fearful with their mother
(Main & Solomon, 1986).Children who did not have a secure attachment style (those with aresistant/anxious, avoidant, or disorganized style) were more likely to
develop symptoms of psychological disorders (Main & Solomon, 1986;
Minde, 2003). However, attachment styles can be different in different cul-
tures; these four attachment styles and their association with psychological
disorders are not necessarily accurate descriptions of attachment styles for
all cultures or countries (Rothbaum et al., 2000).
Research on social factors also points to the ways that relationships—and the social support they provide—can buffer the effects of negative
life events (Hyman, Gold, & Cott, 2003; Swift & Wright, 2000). For
example, researchers have found that healthy relationships can mitigate
the effects of a variety of negative events, such as abuse (during child-
hood or adulthood), trauma, discrimination, and fi nancial hardship. The
converse is also true: The absence of protective relationships increases an
individual’s risk for developing a psychological disorder in the face of a
signifi cant stressor (Dikel, Engdahl, & Eberly, 2005). (Note that stressor
is the technical term used to refer to any stimulus that induces stress.)
The Beale women experienced many stressors: fi nancial problems, the dissolu-tion of Phelan and Big Edie’s marriage, and, in later years, social isolation. Their
extended family and their community ostracized them, at least in part because they
were independent-minded and artistic women. In addition, Little Edie endured her
own unique social stresses: Both her parents were excessively controlling, though
in different ways. Her father restricted her artistic pursuits. And Little Edie could
scarcely leave her mother’s room before her mother was calling urgently for her to
return; this intense attachment and close physical proximity echo their relationship
when Little Edie was a child.
Like the other factors, social factors do not fully account for how and whypsychological disorders arise. For instance, social explanations cannot tell us why,
of people who experience the same circumstances, some will go on to develop a psy-
chological disorder and others won’t.
Biological Explanations
As some researchers explored the behavioral, cognitive, and social factors that con-
tribute to psychological disorders and their treatment, other researchers continued to
focus on biological causes of psychological disorders and their medical treatments.
Many biological researchers were impressed by the discovery in 1913 that one type
of mental illness—which was then called general paresis, or paralytic dementia—was
caused by a sexually transmitted disease, syphilis. The fi nal stage of this disease
damages the brain and leads to abrupt changes in mental processes, including
psychotic symptoms (Hayden, 2003). The discovery of a causal link between
syphilis and general paresis heralded a resurgence of the medical model, the view
that psychological disorders have underlying biological causes. According to the
Children who do not have a secure attachment
style have a higher likelihood of subsequently
developing symptoms of psychological disorders
(Main & Solomon, 1986; Minde, 2003).Michael Newman/Photo Edit