646 CHAPTER 14
(Fisher & Francks, 2006; Marino et al., 2007). Some of these genes affect how
neurons are connected during brain development (Rosen et al., 2007), and some
may affect the functioning of neurons or infl uence the activity of neurotransmitters
(Grigorenko, 2001).
However, there is evidence that environmental factors—such as attending a low-
quality school or coming from a disadvantaged family—can contribute to at least
some forms of dyslexia (Olson et al., 1999; Shaywitz, Lyon, & Shaywitz, 2006;
Wadsworth et al., 2000).Psychological Factors
Although learning disorders arise from neurological abnormalities, this is not the end
of the story. Some children with learning disorders succeed in situations where others
fail. Why? In order to address this question, researchers interviewed college students
with learning disorders and specifi cally asked about their experiences as young children
(Miller, 2002). These people reported a number of psychological factors that played im-
portant roles in shaping their motivation to overcome their disorder; these factors in-
cluded success experiences, self-determination, recognizing particular areas of strength,
identifying the learning disability, and developing ways to cope with it. One person re-
counted, “I like to do things on my own, and if I [I’m] going to learn it, I’m going to keep
drilling myself and doing it on my own... until it sinks in” (Miller, 2002, p. 295).Social Factors
Social factors play a role in shaping motivation to persist in the face of diffi culties
(Miller, 2002). Other people, such as parents and teachers, were important in sup-
porting and encouraging children who later succeeded in overcoming their learning
disabilities. Social factors such as support and encouragement can thus affect a psy-
chological factor—motivation to persist despite problems with learning. However, it
is not clear whether the various factors—neurological, psychological, and social—
have other interactions via feedback loops.In sum, research fi ndings suggest that impaired brain systems underlie learn-
ing disorders. Dyslexia—the most extensively studied learning disorder—appears
to involve problems in the brain systems that process language and in brain systems
that process visual stimuli. However, other factors also affect the nature and course
of the disorder: Motivation and social support infl uence an individual’s ability to
overcome and compensate for a learning disorder.Tim Mosenfelder/Getty Images Steve Granitz/WireImage/Getty Images Don Arnold/WireImage/Getty ImagesP SN