50 CHAPTER 2
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the likelihood that a behavior
will be repeated depends on the consequences associated with the behavior. Operant
conditioning usually involves voluntary behaviors, whereas classical conditioning
usually involves refl exive behaviors. With operant conditioning, when a behavior
is followed by a positive consequence, the behavior is more likely to be repeated.
Consider Big Edie’s behavior of crying out for Little Edie to come back into the
room. Little Edie then returns to the room (a positive consequence), making it
more likely that Big Edie will cry out for Little Edie to return in the future. When
a behavior is followed by a negative consequence, it is less likely to be repeated.
For instance, the last time Big Edie left Grey Gardens was in 1968, when she and
her daughter went to a party at a friend’s house; upon returning home, the Beale
women discovered that thieves had taken $15,000 worth of heirlooms. It seemed
to Big Edie that her behavior (leaving the house) was followed by a negative conse-
quence (the theft), and so she never left again.
Psychologist B. F. Skinner showed that operant conditioning can explain a great
deal of behavior, including abnormal behavior, and operant conditioning can be
used to treat abnormal behaviors (Skinner, 1965). As we shall see throughout this
book, operant conditioning contributes to various psychological disorders, such as
depression, anxiety disorders, substance abuse disorder, eating disorders, and prob-
lems with self-regulation in general. Operant conditioning relies on two types of
consequences: reinforcement and punishment.Reinforcement
A key element in operant conditioning is reinforcement, the process by which the
consequence of a behavior increasesthe likelihood of the behavior’s recurrence.
The consequence—an object or event—that makes a behavior more likely in the
future is called a reinforcer. In the case of Big Edie’s fear of being alone, the be-
havior was Big Edie’s calling out to her daughter to return to her room, and it was
followed by a reinforcer: Little Edie’s return to her mother’s side. The consequences
do not need to be explicit in order for reinforcement to occur. That is, subsequent
behavior change in response to reinforcement is likely to occur even when the indi-
vidual is not told what behavior is being reinforced.
We need to consider two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement and
negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when a desired reinforcer is
received after the behavior, which makes the behavior more likely to occur again in
the future. For instance, when someone takes a drug, the chemical properties of the
drug may lead the person to experience a temporarily pleasant state (the reinforcer),
which he or she may want to experience again, thus making the person more likely
to take the drug again.
In contrast, negative reinforcement occurs when an aversive or uncomfortable
stimulus is removedafter a behavior, which makes that behavior more likely to
be repeated in the future. For example, suppose that a man has a strong fear—a
phobia—of dirt. If his hands get even slightly dirty, he will have the urge to wash
them and will be uncomfortable until he does so. The act of washing his hands is
negatively reinforced by the consequence of removing his discomfort about the dirt,
which makes him more likely to wash his hands again the next time they get a bit
dirty. Similarly, someone who feels sad and then eats some ice cream may briefl y feel
better; the act of eating the ice cream is negatively reinforced by the consequence of
feeling less sad, which in turn increases the likelihood that the person will reach for
ice cream the next time he or she feels sad. Negative reinforcement is often confused
with punishment; as we see next, however, the two are very different.Punishment
Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement both increase the probability of a
behavior’s recurring. In contrast, punishment is a process by which an event or ob-
ject that is the consequence of a behavior decreases the likelihood that the behavior
will occur again. Just as there are two types of reinforcement, there are two typesOperant conditioning
A type of learning in which the likelihood that
a behavior will be repeated depends on the
consequences associated with the behavior.
Reinforcement
The process by which the consequence of
a behavior increases the likelihood of the
behavior’s recurrence.
Positive reinforcement
The type of reinforcement that occurs when a
desired reinforcer is received after a behavior,
which makes the behavior more likely to
occur again in the future.
Negative reinforcement
The type of reinforcement that occurs when
an aversive or uncomfortable stimulus is
removed after a behavior, which makes that
behavior more likely to be produced again in
the future.
Punishment
The process by which an event or object that
is the consequence of a behavior decreases the
likelihood that the behavior will occur again.