Green marketing 731
Although issues of social concern vary over
time and between countries, survey data reveal
that concern about the state of the environment
is spread across the planet, and (contrary to
many peoples’ expectations) is shared by the
populations (if not always the governments) of
the less-industrialized as well as the indus-
trialized nations. However, the 1997 Kyoto
Intergovernmental Conference on Climate
Change and subsequent meetings in Marakesh
and The Hague have demonstrated the dif-
ficulties of progressing and implementing
international agreements to tackle common
environmental problems.
There is also growing concern about the
power, influence and accountability of global
corporations. This concern has been expressed
in protests such as at the infamous ‘Battle of
Seattle’ during the 1999 World Trade Organiza-
tion meeting. According to Institute of Policy
Studies figures, 51 of the 100 largest economic
entities on the planet are now corporations, the
remaining 49 being nations. In a world still
largely governed through national laws, it is a
considerable challenge to ensure that the
behaviour of transnational corporations, of
which over 60 000 now exist, does not sacrifice
the social and environmental interests of cit-
izens in some countries for the benefits of
shareholders and consumers in others.
Society
Within societies, concern about the environ-
mental and social impacts of business is gen-
erally increasing and is being reflected in a
number of ways, including:
Changing values and attitudes.In the last few
decades many social values have changed,
particularly in relation to the levels of trust
placed in companies and other institutions.
According to Edelman PR’s 2000 international
social attitude survey, on issues related to the
environment, human rights and health,
information from non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) was trusted by 60 per
cent of people compared to 15 per cent who
trusted the government and media, and 10 per
cent who trusted major corporations. Social
attitudes towards the environment have also
changed, so that it is perceived as vulnerable,
valuable and in need of protection. This has
been reflected in changes in the values
associated with products and their features.
For Kodak, the ‘convenient disposable’ camera
of the early 1980s metamorphosed into the
‘single-use recyclable’ camera of the 1990s.
Pressure group activity. The last 20 years have
witnessed a considerable increase in the size,
budgets and sophistication of pressure groups
concerned with the socio-environmental
impacts of businesses. Many of their
communications campaigns are now produced
by the same agencies that work for the major
companies. As the experience of companies
like Nike and Gap has shown in relation to
international labour standards, companies with
the most famous brand names are the most
likely to be targeted, even though they may
not be the worst offenders. There has also
been a recent trend towards partnership
approaches between pressure groups and
companies, such as that between McDonald’s
and the Environmental Defense Fund.
Media interest.An increasing amount of media
output is devoted to nature and
environmentally related messages, and
examples of poor eco-performance are a
favourite target for investigative journalism. As
Mulhall (1992) notes: ‘The massive impact of
instant media in accelerating the message of
gross environmental incompetence by our
leaders can be summarized in three letters –
CNN. It means that a company’s reputation
can be destroyed globally in one day’. By 2000,
CNN was available in 151 million households.
Political and legal interest.The quantity and
complexity of social and environmental
legislation faced by companies continues to
grow. Businesses in Europe are now affected
by over 80 EU environmental directives and
regulations. Companies that rely on mere
compliance risk being left behind by the