numerals, Egyptian numbers could be
used for addition and subtraction, but not
for simple multiplication and division.
All was not lost, however, as the Egyp-
tians devised a way to do multiplication
and division that involved addition. Multi-
plying and dividing by 10 was easy with
hieroglyphics—just replace each symbol
in the given number by the sign for the
next higher order. To multiply and divide
by any other factor, Egyptians devised the
tabulations based on the two times tables,
or a sequence of duplications.Why did the Egyptiansneed to
develop mathematics?
Probably the most pressing reason for the
development of Egyptian mathematics
came from a periodic occurrence in nature: the flooding of the Nile River. With the
advent of agriculture in the Nile River valleys, flooding was important, not only to pro-
vide fertile soil and water for the irrigated fields, but also to know when the fields
would become dry. In addition, along with the growth of the Egyptian society came a
need for a more complex way of keeping track of taxes, dividing property, buying and
selling goods, and even amassing an army. Thus, the need for counting and mathe-
matics arose, along with the development of a written system of numbers to complete
and record the myriad of transactions.Where does most of our knowledge of Egyptian mathematics originate?
Most of our knowledge of Egyptian mathematics comes from writings on papyrus, a
type of writing paper made in ancient Egypt from the pith and long stems of the
papyrus plant. Most papyri no longer exist, as the material is fragile and disintegrates
over time. But two major papyri associated with Egyptian mathematics have survived.
Named after Scottish Egyptologist A. Henry Rhind, the Rhind papyrusis about 19
feet (6 meters) long and 1 foot (1/3 meter) wide. It was written around 1650 BCEby
Ahmes, an Egyptian scribe who claimed he was copying a 200-year-old document
(thus the original information is from about 1850 BCE). This papyrus contains 87
mathematical problems; most of these are practical, but some teach manipulation of
the number system (though with no application in mind). For example, the first six
problems of the Rhind papyrus ask the following: problem 1. how to divide nloaves
14 between 10 men, in which n1; in problem 2, n2 ; in problem 3, n6; in prob-
The Egyptian civilization did much to contribute to
mathematics, including developing a numbering
system and using geometry in architecture to create
the famous pyramids and other buildings. Photogra-
pher’s Choice/Getty Images.