Hindus only. An individual’s specific dharma (hissva-dhartna) is primarily deter-
mined by two criteria: his social class and his stage of life.
The members of the four social classes (varn.a, often translated with the more
modern term “caste”), Brahman/Brahmin (Bra ̄hman.a),Ks.atriya,Vais ́ya, and
S ́u ̄dra, have different dharmas. The three higher classes, the dvijas “twice-born,”
have three kinds of dharma in common: study the sacred texts (adhyayana),
patronize sacrifices for their own benefit (yajana), and generosity toward others
(da ̄na). The Brahman’s specific dharma includes teaching the Vedic texts
(adhya ̄pana, the causative form of adhyayana), performing sacrifices for the
benefit of others (ya ̄jana, the causative form ofyajana), and receiving special gifts
to which only Brahmans are entitled (pratigraha). The Ks.atriya maintains law
and order inside the territory and defends the country against outsiders; the king
who, theoretically though not always in practice, is the principal Ks.atriya, has
his own ra ̄jadharma. The Vais ́ya earns a living with trade, crafts, and agriculture.
The members of the sole class that is not twice-born, the S ́u ̄ dras, have only one
dharma: be of service (s ́us ́ru ̄s.a) to the members of the three higher classes.
There are also four life stages (a ̄s ́rama), during each of which the dharma of
the Hindu is different. At an early age (5 or later, depending on his social class)
the boy born in one of the three higher classes undergoes a rite of passage
(sam.ska ̄ra, often translated as “sacrament”) called upanayana. This ritual is con-
ceived as a second birth, as a result of which the boy is invested with the sacred
thread (yqjñopavı ̄ta), and becomes a brahmaca ̄rin. The main dharma of the brah-
maca ̄rin is to move in with and study the sacred texts under the guidance of a
teacher (guru), to serve his guru, and to observe strict celibacy (brahmacarya).
Unless he decides to spend his entire life as a permanent (nais.t.hika)brahmaca ̄rin,
at the end of the first life stage, the length of which depends on his varn.a, another
rite of passage, consisting in a ritual bath (sama ̄vartana), makes the young man
asna ̄taka. This prepares him for marriage and the second stage of life, that of a
gr.hastha“householder.” The gr.hasthaestablishes and sustains a family, including
the primary duty of fathering a son who will perform the necessary funeral rites
(s ́ra ̄ddha) after his father’s death. After the second life stage the Hindu may
enter the third a ̄s ́rama, retire from active life, and become a vanaprastha “forest
dweller,” eventually to enter the fourth stage, that of a sam.nya ̄sin“renouncer.”
Note that, for women, there is only one single rite of passage, their wedding.
The treatises on dharma recognize but do not elaborate in detail on other
dharmas that are not applicable to all, but to specific groups of Hindus only.
They provide some examples ofdharmas followed by “the Northerners” or “the
Southerners.” They also refer to regional dharmas (des ́adharma), “caste” dharmas
(ja ̄tidharma), even to family/clan dharmas (kuladharma), as well as to dharmas
restricted to members of guilds (s ́ren.idharma) and dharmas that are observed in
the army. In other words, forms of behavior (a ̄ca ̄ra) that are recognized as proper
for the members of these groups are dharma, even if they are not described in or
even if they are incompatible with the rules codified in the dharmas ́a ̄stras.
Another important aspect of the texts on dharma is that they recognize special
circumstances, emergencies (a ̄pad), in which the strict rules they lay down in the
the dharmas ́a ̄stras 103