has become a commonplace in the Na ̄ra ̄yan.ı ̄ya, whereas they are more distinct
and even contrasted in earlier passages. In all the Yoga passages there is a strong
emphasis on discipline and control of the senses; the supernatural powers to
which they lead should be avoided by the true Yogin, for the proper goal is the
attainment of the state of Brahman or union with the one. Yoga practice, as pre-
sented in the Maha ̄bha ̄rata, comprises four main aspects of general preparations
through moral conduct; diet, posture and surroundings; breath-control; and
withdrawal of the senses, concentration and meditation. Although I ̄s ́vara, the
supreme deity, is recognized, he is not active and tends to be equated with the
self in its enlightened state. Two striking aspects of Yoga in the Maha ̄bha ̄rata are
the concern with techniques of dying and the use of the imagery of light. These
are sometimes combined as in the death of Drona, where he resorts to Yoga,
becomes a light, and ascends to heaven, so that it seems to those below that there
are two suns in the sky (7.165.35–40).
In addition to this more obviously philosophical material in its third section,
theS ́a ̄ntiparvan also contains in its first two sections much material that, in the
context of its broadly practical purpose, also has religious implications. These
two sections focus on and take their names from the duties of kings, ra ̄jadharma,
and what is allowable in hard times, a ̄paddharma, both incorporating the term
dharma with its meanings of morality and tradition. The second in particular
has had considerable influence on later Hinduism through its accommoda-
tion of theory – for example, that Bra ̄hmans should only teach – with actual
practice – that in reality they follow a wider range of occupations in order to
earn a living.
Later Influence
The influence of the epics on later Hinduism, and more generally on Indian
culture as a whole, is shown not only by the summaries of the stories of Ra ̄ma
and Kr.s.n.a in the Pura ̄n.as and by the later Sanskrit Ra ̄ma ̄yan.asthat have already
been briefly mentioned but also in pure literature, art and theatre right up to the
present day. Indeed, the impact extends more widely still, since the Jain univer-
sal history makes the Kr.s.n.a story a model for much of its structure, while ver-
sions of the Ra ̄ma story are found in both Buddhist and Jain texts in India and
spread throughout Southeast Asia and as far as China and Japan, with the story
on occasion being localized in the individual cultures (this is seen most obviously
in Thailand, where the Thai kings were frequently called Ra ̄ma and the Thai
capital was named Ayutthiya after Ra ̄ma’s Ayodhya ̄), and many plays on the
Ra ̄ma and Pa ̄n.d.ava stories are performed in the Wayang Kulit puppet theatre of
Java. The plots of much of classical Sanskrit literature are drawn from one or
other of the epics (and even now modern Indian writers not infrequently draw
on them). Sculptural representations are found on temples in North India from
perhaps as early as the fifth century ceand one of the most famous examples of
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