In contrast to the brahmin householder who followed the puranic, Sma ̄rta
injunctions, a number of other S ́aiva groups are listed in the Pura ̄n.as which are
on the edges of orthopraxy and are even condemned by some texts. These S ́aiva
sects are classified in quite complex ways in the Pura ̄n.as and other medieval
sources – there are references in S ́an.kara’s and Ra ̄ma ̄nuja’s commentaries on the
Brahma Su ̄traand in Ya ̄muna among others – but four groups in particular
emerge as important. These are the Pa ̄s ́upata, La ̄kulis ́a, S ́aiva, and Ka ̄palika
sects. There are variant names for some of these and they are also subdivided
(Lorenzen 1991: 1–12; Dyczkowski 1988: 16–19). While the Pura ̄n.as mention
these sects and the later Pura ̄n.as contain material which is derived from the
nonvedic revelation of the Tantras, they are often hostile to the nonpuranic S ́aiva
traditions, partly in reaction to the tantric tradition’s hostility towards the vedic;
theKu ̄rma Pura ̄n.afor instance condemns the Pa ̄s ́upata system as heretical
(Ku ̄rma Pura ̄n.a1.14.30; 1.20.69; see Dyczkowski 1988: 10–11). A picture
therefore emerges of a puranic S ́aiva tradition, revering the Vedas, with ortho-
prax social attitudes, being confronted by renunicate S ́aiva traditions, at first the
Pa ̄s ́upata sect who threatened puranic tradition, but later by more extreme
groups. These alternative S ́aiva sects ranged from ascetics who regarded them-
selves as being within the vedic fold, namely the Pa ̄s ́upatas and Saiddha ̄ntikas,
to groups who consciously placed themselves outside of that sphere such as the
Ka ̄pa ̄likas. It is to these nonpuranic groups that I wish to pay some attention, as
it is these groups who have formed the majority S ́aiva traditions and who are
still extant in the subcontinent.
Non-Puranic S ́aivism
Sanderson has shown that we can make a broad distinction between the Vedic,
Puranic devotee of S ́iva on the one hand and the nonpuranic S ́aiva initiate on
the other. These latter had undergone an initiation (dı ̄ks.a ̄) into the cults of their
affiliation for the purpose of liberation in this life (mukti) and/or obtaining
magical power to experience pleasure in higher worlds (bhukti). Within this
group a distinction can be made between those S ́aivas who follow the outer or
higher path (atima ̄rga) and those who follow the path of mantras (mantrama ̄rga).
The followers of the atima ̄rgasought only liberation, while the followers of the
mantrama ̄rgasought not only liberation but power and pleasure in higher worlds
(Sanderson 1988b: 664–90). Among the groups of the atima ̄rgatwo are par-
ticularly important, the Pa ̄s ́upatas and a sub-branch, the La ̄kula, from whom
another important sect, the Ka ̄la ̄mukhas, developed.
The Pa ̄s ́upatas are the oldest named S ́aiva group, dating probably from
around the second century ad. They are referred to in the Maha ̄bha ̄rata(s ́antipar-
van349.64), but the earliest surviving text of the group is the Pa ̄s ́upata Su ̄tra,
pre-tenth century, with a commentary by Kaun.d.inya. This text was regarded as
revelation by the Pa ̄s ́upatas. The myth behind it is that S ́iva entered the corpse
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